Zakariya Abu-Dabat

The Achievement and Development of Critical Thinking               Skills in the Arabic Language of Adolescent Pupils With reference to The Primary Stage throughout Jordan

Abstract

This study aims to investigate and measure the students’ critical thinking skills and achievements in the Arabic language at Primary and secondary stages, also measuring the development of the cognitive Dimentions of critical thinking asserted by the researcher. The researcher has identified five elements which comprise of the varying levels of critical thinking abilities in the Arabic Language. These are as follows; analyses , inference, Induction, deduction and evaluation,. The Arabic grammar and literature exam has been formulated for both primary and secondary Pupils, in order to answer the questions posed by the study. The researcher found out that the levels achievement of critical thinking of  students in both stages, are average and satisfactory, there is no significant statistical difference in the achievement of critical thinking skills between primary and secondary students, there is also no significant statistical differences in the achievement of critical thinking skills attributed to gender, However there are significant statistical differences in the achievement of critical thinking skills between Government schools & public schools.

Records show that critical thinking thrives mostly in public schools. According to the category of critical thinking skills, students can deal with analysis best, This dimension ranked top of the list of answers Evaluation, inference, deduction and induction came last respectively.

Key words: critical thinking skills, analysis, inferences, deduction, induction, evaluation, primary stage, secondary stage

Introduction

The most important educational goals to be achieved at secondary school level is to apply critical thinking to their academic assignments. In Article 3 of the Jordanian Constitution both the dimensions and foundations of Educational philosophy has been emphasized. In article IV we read that the student should at this point able to;

* Use the Arabic language in self-expression and communication with others easily and smoothly.

* The development of critical thinking skills and a means to use scientific methods of observation, research and to solve problems (a teacher’s message, issue 2, 1993)

We note that the focus included within the articles of the Constitution relating to education was on the subject of the Arabic language and its importance in maintaining the nation’s identity. It also focused on the training of critical thinking skills that develop the capacity of individuals and contribute to solving the problems they face thus leading to the elevation and progress of the nation.Placing them in the ranks of advanced nations. The Education Act passed in 1994 stipulated it’s main objective which was to develop further the capacity of citizens capable of critical thinking following scientific methods in research and problem solving (Teachers Message, issue2, 1993).

Critical thinking is the cornerstone for the acquisition of different experiences throughout ones life. Hence a fundamental role of teaching is the ability to train students to apply critical thinking together with problem solving methods. In addition to this a scientific approach should become a habitual response of students to problems through the continuous training of critical thinking methods. Accordingly the student should demonstrate autonomy in their ability to critically analyze problems and provide comprehensive solutions. The ability to apply critical thinking methods is not achieved simply by dictation but is a result and combination of ones general intelligence and academic practice. (Abu – Dabat 2007, p. 52)

There are substantial differences discovered between a persons own unique style of scientific thinking mechanisms and the steps employed to teach a person the skills required for critical thinking. Commenting on this the American educator and philosopher John Dewey, who laid the foundations of scientific thinking for the 20th century outlined the steps in which such a mechanism could be employed. These are as follows; feeling that there is a problem, data collection, hypothesis and conclusion.

The mechanism of critical thinking lies at the heart of the educational process of what we call the ‘Dewey thinking apostate’ or reflexive thinking which are based on two basic processes, hesitation and trial and error, after which the students or learner will achieve better reflective thinking and problem solving skills. (Archambault, 1964.p.29RD)

In the sphere of reflective thinking hesitation and ‘trial and error’ are considered by Dewey to be the main embodiment of life itself. The results of which are said to be the human beings innate ability to carry out everyday activities.  There dimensions of critical thinking are emotional, social, physical and cognitive. In our study we will focus on the cognitive aspect for the study of critical thinking. These Cognitive aspects can divide into five different categories: Inference, Analysis, Evaluation, Conclusion and Induction.

These five dimensions indicate the acquisition of information by students, which drive them to think in a more complex manner and become more self critical and often reflect on the work they have done. (Anderson, J.R. 1988)

Accordingly we are assured that critical thinking must give students an overall better understanding of not only their academic work but also a better general understanding about the world around them and independence in making their own decisions. After examining their results produced when critical thinking methods are applied the student is then more aware of a means to control such results and in turn become more efficient and more accurate. *(Stephen, 2000.p45)

Problem of the study

Many educators and researchers associates critical thinking skills with modern and up to date teaching methods, and usually return to configure proper scientific thinking to the methods in which they apply in the pilot schools. They conducted their tests in accordance with the principle of the experimental and control groups. The researcher believes that the constructions of critical thinking skills has not only become a skill in students minds and actions as a result of applying and conducted them in a certain and a limited time, but they need to be trained through continuously in every subject according to the desired aims laid down and formulated by the teacher and his colleagues in the school.  So these skills are scientifically achieved as a process that is long term in nature. This may take years governed by many factors and variables.  For that the researcher has realized that the measurement of critical thinking skills among students must be built and formulated on the performance of the teacher and based on the actual strategies in the schools and not on the proposed and inaccurate postulates and hypotheses. (Geoff. 2009, P.57)

The aims of the study

This study aims to measure the level of cognitive aspects of critical thinking skills, identified by the researcher among the students of primary and secondary stages.

The study also aimed to determine the development of these aspects in secondary school where the students moved from the primary school to secondary level. On the other hand, the researcher would like to know to what extend the long terms goals performed by The Ministry of Education in Jordan has been achieved.

Accordingly, this study aims to demonstrate the results for students who have been taught the five dimensions for cognitive thinking and will answer the following questions;

1. To what extent do learning strategies and teaching methods contribute in the formation of critical thinking skills for students in both primary and secondary stages?

2. Is there any development of critical thinking skills among students of secondary stage and what element of the five Dimentions received more than others?

3. To what extent such strategies contribute in building up students (males and females) ability for critical thinking skills in both primary and secondary stages?

4. Are there any differences in the way of critical thinking among public and private school students?

5. Which of the five cognitive dimensions have received a greater    response from students?

Postulates of the study:

From these questions, the researcher extrapolated the following assumptions:

1. The current education strategy and methods of teaching do not usually contribute to the building of critical thinking skills among students.

2. There are no statistically significant differences between the performances of primary and secondary school students according to the five cognitive dimensions,.

3. There are no statistically significant differences between the performances of all students according to their gender.

4. There are no statistically significant differences between the performance of public school students and their counterparts in private schools.

5. There are no significant differences between students’ responses in both primary and secondary schools to the test questions performed to measure critical thinking skills dimensions.

Study Terminology 

Critical thinking

Dewey and Mathew agreed on the meaning and mechanism of explanation of critical thinking. Both scholars thought that critical thinking skills grow gradually in the mind of a person and pass through several stages until they become part of that person’s personality and actions (Mathew. 1988, P.38-43)

Critical thinking skills according to the entomology theory, are the most important characteristic of the human from other organisms. The mechanism of critical thinking skills start from direct experience passing through criticism and analysis up to the deduction and approach the results ( Kadra, 2005)

Paul has identified critical thinking as an organized procedural way of which form human meaningful and accurate thinking (Paul 1991).  In his term Hullf identified it as caution and careful examination of the events and beliefs, then working very hard to make an accurate assessment to those elements (Hullf , 2000) .

Al-Jarwan identified critical thinking skills as reasonable thinking that is focused on deciding on doing what you want according to what to believe.  He added, such a process needs and requires forming a suitable hypothesis and questions to be answered, also alternative plans to experiment. (Al-Jarwan , 2002)

From the above definitions we can understand critical thinking as an appreciation of reflexive action and estimation to what we believe. According to such complicated thinking and acting, one can accept it or refuse it. (Fisherman.S.1997).

Parker, M. pointed out that C.T. is a decision to accept such ideas or reject ideas of a certain judgment (Richard and Linden.2002).Some educators believe that critical thinking is logical thinking. But in fact it contains a correct vision of thinking, honesty and accuracy in performance to reach the factual judgment.(Http:11enWikipedia Org/p.1).

The researcher believes that above all mentioned identifications, critical thinking skills are a clear knowledge of the differences between logic on the one hand and measurement (inductive thinking) and extrapolation (deductive thinking) on the other.

Edward Glasser has confirmed the existence of three basic elements of critical thinking skills:

1. The ability to link the elements of the problem and experiences.
2. Identify the logical scientific methods and the results achieved.
3. Obtaining certain skills to make connections between premises and results (Glasser,E.1941)

William Simner who lived in the period in which Dewey, J. lived could conclude on the type of individual thinking through his performance and work, you can say: ‘this man is an expert in medicine or in mechanics etc’. (William, S.2001).

In our point of view critical thinking skills are intended objectives formed by the teacher and the goals of education in all fields. (Edgar,S.1976,P.54)

Inference

Inference is the process of extracting the answer or the result based on information known in advance. This may be either true or false. In the Oxford dictionary we read: infer, to reach a conclusion from the information you have, (Oxford dictionary 1999, P.392)

Conclusion

A method of reasoning, cognitive mental process and a means to find the cause of accidents, in order to understand or support the beliefs, or extraction through the concepts, actions or feelingsز

)available at wikipedia.org/wiki)

Induction

The process of deriving general principles from particular facts or instances.( www.thefreedictionary.com.) thus is the process that stimulates the mind of individuals to reach total realization.

Analysis

To determine the relationship between the intended and actual phrases, questions, concepts and attributes.

Evaluation

A systematic process of data collection and interpretation of the evidence, related to students or a program, which helps direct the educational work and action, It is intended to measure the credibility and validity of exams.  )ًwww.slah.jeeran.com/sal14.htm)

Previous Studies

Many studies conducted on the effectiveness of new strategies in teaching in educational achievement. There are studies related to the relationship between teaching strategies and the development of critical thinking among students.

Majid Aljalad conducted a study about the impact of the use of geographic map concepts on the development of critical thinking skills in Islamic Studies (Aljalad 2006).

M. Soleiman conducted research on the impact of the proposed strategy for reading a certain book in the Arabic Language on critical thinking skills. The researcher found a positive relationship between the two variables (Soleiman, 2002).

A study also carried out by M.Hamadna found out the level is satisfactory and differentiated. in critical thinking in mathematics at the tenth grade in Jordan. (Hamadna, 1995)

There is a relevant study that proved good relations between classroom speeches (addressing) and group grammatical concepts in secondary schools and put them into practice (Garaida, 2007).

In the Western world a study was conducted by Roland on the impact of the classroom environment on student mental skills.

The researcher found out there was a significant relation between the variables assigned by the researcher and critical thinking in general. (Roland, 2000)

An important study about students’ achievements of critical thinking at university level, was conducted by a group of professors at the University of California.

The researcher team found out and reached the following conclusion:

A large proportion of the sample (89%) recognized the importance of students training in critical thinking skills, but only 19% of the students operate in order to achieve this goal.

The study also showed that teachers do not explain the importance of critical thinking skills to their students as a goal that should be achieved.

The study showed that 78% of the student’s response lack necessary skills, whilst 75% considered the assessment was something minor.

The results proved that 8% of the faculty teachers are deliberately teaching their students critical teaching skills. (Gardiner, 1995).

Methodology and procedures  

The researcher used a special test to measure critical thinking skills which are: Inference, deduction, induction, analyses and evaluation for both primary and secondary stages.

The test has extrapolated from Arabic grammar and Arabic literature fields with reference to a Californian test of critical thinking skills.  The test was approved by the American Philosophical Society (Fashion and Fashions, 2002).

Every test included twenty five questions for primary and secondary students. Five questions for each element to be marked equally. Twenty points for each element. The total marks were out one hundred

The researcher used the descriptive analytical method to achieve the objectives of the research and answer the questions of the study.  The researcher also requested from a group of professors of curriculum and Arabic language for approval after modifying the test.

For the stability of the test, the researcher used Koder Richard -20 equation after its application to a sample of twenty pupils in each grade. The results showed a high degree of internal consistency between paragraphs of the test, reaching an appropriate value (0 .72) and(0.62) , (0.25) and (0. 50) , this indicated that the coefficient for both was suitable to go a head with the scientific conditions of the research.

Limitation of the study

This study was limited to sixth grade students because it is the final stage of the primary school and tenth grade students because it represents the secondary school.

The researcher used statistical correlation coefficients to compare between students responses of the two groups. The researcher chooses Arabic language grammar and literature to be the fields of the study. Arabic grammar and literature contain specific areas of critical thinking skills identified in the research. Arabic grammar is the tool in modifying the Arabic tongue and devise grammar rules (Abu- Dabat, Z 2007, P.272).

Arabic literature is the artistic heritage and linguistic science that has been accumulated over the centuries and presented and reflected Arabic life in all its forms, shapes and colours (Abu-Magli, 1999).

The researcher also selected eight schools west of the city of greater Amman. Four primary schools and four secondary schools, divided between public and private schools, males and females in each grade. The number of students consisted of forty from each stage, chosen in an orderly manner.

Results of the study

To answer the previous questions and verify the validity of the assumptions, appropriate tests were used and the results are demonstrated in the tables below.

To answer the first question: to what extent do learning strategies and teaching methods contribute in the forming of critical thinking skills among students in both primary and secondary stages.

Averages and standard deviations of the five dimensions been extrapolated and the table below shows the results,

Table (1)

Averages and standard deviations of critical thinking skills available     among the students in both primary and secondary stages.

From the above table, it is clear that teaching strategies and teaching methods, contributed in the format of critical thinking skills among the students with a medium degree in secondary stage and a low degree in primary stage. If we take into consideration that the degree of success is an average of 50%. Thus we reject the first hypotheses.

To answer the second question: If there was any development of critical thinking skills among students of secondary stage, the researcher used T. test independent to examine the differences between students’ scores in both stages.

The above schedule indicated that there were no statistical significant deviations in the scores of four dimensions being, analysis, evaluation, inference and extrapolation, but there was little differences in conclusion dimensions in favor of secondary stage results.  On the other hand, the arithmetic average marks and the standard deviation of all dimensions were nearly equal.

To answer the third question, the researcher also used a T .test independent sample to acknowledge the differences between the results of male and female students in both primary and secondary schools.

Table No.(2) clarifies the results:

Table (2)

The above table indicated that there were no statically significant differences in the way of critical thinking male and female in the over all critical thinking skills in both primary and secondary stages. Thus, we agree the third hypothesis emphasized that there is no statistical significant relationship between the results of students in both stages.

To answer the fourth question, about critical thinking skills among students in public and private schools, the researcher also used  a T test independent and the results were in table (3) as follows:                                                     

                                           Table 3    

The table above showed that there are no statistically significant differences in pupils responses in both stages to the questions related to four of the dimensions of critical thinking skills namely, analysis, evaluation , inference and extrapolation That is because the value of S.S.D. was less than (0.05), but concerning the conclusion dimension  the study revealed a S.S.D is in favor of private schools .

The researcher rejected the fourth hypotheses. The results of the study indicated some differences between the two types of schools in practicing the dimensions of the critical thinking skills, this is because the private schools changed some existing teaching strategies, or perhaps, the teachers at those schools used the latest methods of teaching than those used in public schools.

To answer the fifth question: Which of the five cognitive dimensions have received a greater response from students?  The highest skills in the secondary school were as follows:

The analysis was 67.5% followed by inference 65% , then the evaluation 66.5% followed by conclusion 66.3%  finally induction or extrapolation 61.% .That means the average of the whole scores were 65.68% . In the primary school the highest scores were as follows:  conclusion was 60% followed by inference and extrapolation 56% and analysis 55%  Finally, the evaluation score was 51% that means the average of the whole scores was 55.60%.

From the above scores and averages, its clear that the dimensions of critical thinking skills had been developed in the secondary schools and the same dimensions were low in general at primary schools as shown in table(1).

Discussion of the results:

The results of the two exams showed that the teachers in primary and secondary stages had tried to apply the strategies of teaching methods to achieve the aims and objectives of education formed by the Ministry of education in Jordan, but in a satisfactory manner. The teachers had used the same strategies and methods in teaching with no differences in this respect between public and private schools.

The study also showed that the students of secondary stage responded to the five dimensions with some improvements and those dimension developed and witnessed some progress in students responses and answers the questions of the exam, which means that the students got and achieved more experience and was aware of the importance of such skills, influenced by the awareness of there teachers about critical thinking skills in Arabic language.

Recommendations:

1)   The teacher should try various strategies of teaching methods in both stages primary and secondary stages, in order to stimulate and reinforce student’s skills especially in the previous dimensions.

2)   The need for diversification in the use of appropriate and educational technology.

3)   The need for further research on teaching methods and useful strategies used to achieve the objectives of education in Jordan.

4)   The need for contentious training for teachers to improve their performance.

References:

1- Abu- Dabat,Z.The Curriculum, Basics and Components. Dar     Al-fikr , Amman , Jordan 2007 . P.52. (Arabic text)

2- Abu- Dabat,Z. Teaching Methods of Arabic Language. Dar Al-fikr , Amman , Jordan 2007 .P. 272 (Arabic text)

3- Abu-Mogly,S. Modern Methods in Arabic Language training. Dar Magdalawi. Amman. Jordan 1999..  (Arabic text)

4- Aljalad, M. The Development of Critical thinking in Islamic    Education Administration. King Saud University Magazine, No.18 Al-Riyad, Saudi Arabi.P.653 (Arabic text)

5-   Aljaraideh, N. The relation between class room addressing and understanding Arabic grammar. Amman University for post graduates studies .PhD. 2007. (Arabic text)

6- Al-Kadra, N. Teaching critical thinking an empirical study Ramón Publisher, Amman, Jordan 2004(Arabic text)

7- Almansur, Z. Arabic Grammar and linguistic implementation. Ministry of education. Second edition, Amman, Jordan 2005-2006 (Arabic text)

8- Almansur,Z. Arabic language and communication skills. Ministry of education. Second edition, Amman, Jordan 2005-2006 (Arabic text)

9-   Archibald, R.D. John Dewey on Education, Chicago and London,  Unit, of Chicago Press 1964.

10- Anderson, J.R cognitive Psychology and Implications. 2^nd edition. W.H.G. New York, Freeman and company, 1988.

11- Edgar, S. and Sidny, M. Teaching practice, Problems and Perspectives, Methuen and Ltd. London 1976.P.54

12- Fisher, Alec and seriven, Michael. Critical thinking, It’s Definition and assassinate, Cent for research in    critical thinking, (U.K) Edge press (U.S.A). ISBN 0-9531796-O-5, 1997

13- Fashioned Noreen and peat, exernekuzing the Critical thinking in Knowledge 7evelo- parent and clinical Judgment, Nursing out look, Volume 44, P.P 129-136, Available at: WWW. Insight assessment. Com

14-Geoff, P. Teaching Today, A Practice guide, Fourth edition, Nilson Thornes Ltd. 2009, P.57

15- Hamadneh, M. The level of Critical Thinking within tenth class students in Jordan. M.ED .Jordan University .1995(Arabic text)

16- Hulffe, Marie, Comparison study of life instructions versue interactive Tel. For teaching Msw students critical thinking skills. Ebsco Host. 2000

17-  Jarwan, F. Teaching ways of thinking, Concepts and Applicability. Dar Al-fikr , Amman , Jordan 2002 (Arabic text)

18- Lipman, Matthew, Critical Thinking, Art Education 50 (5) p.p.51.56

19-Lion Gardiner, Redesigning Higher education: Producing Dramatic Gains in student learning: in conjunction with ERIC Clearing house on Higher Education, 1995

20- Oxford Word power, Oxford University press, 1999. P.392

21- Paul, R.n. Critical Thinking.  How to prepare Students   to rapidly changing word. Tame welkin and A.J.A.B inker, Foundation of critical thinking, Sonata Rosa, CA. 1995.

22- Paul Richaril and Elder, Linda,Critical thinking. Tools for Taking charge of your learning and your life, New Jersey: prentice hall publishing I.S.B.N. 0-13-114962-8.

23- Roland, Judith, Relation ship of class room Environment at Growth in Critical thinking ability of First Year college student’s Dissertation abstract               International.60 (8) p 7u5.A.

24- Solayman,M Proposed Strategy for the development of critical thinking in reading . Faculty of education, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt, 2001P.47- 95(Arabic text)

25- Stephan, Morris, synthesis of research on critical Thinking .Vol. (42) p.54

26- Sumner, William. Study of the serological Importance of usages, Manners customs, Mores and Morals, Network Gin and co (1906-1940

Internett

www.slah.jeeran.com/sal14.ht m

at.wikipedia.org/wik

Available at: LHP: wiped .org/critical thinking.p.1

             www.arab-ency.com/index.php

The Influence of the applicable of Hidden Curriculum                  elements on pupils’ achievement in Arabic language at the             primary stage

Abstract

This study aimed at examining the influence of the hidden curriculum elements on pupils’ achievement in Arabic language at the primary school. To achieve such aim, the researcher postulated that no considerable relation between the hidden curriculum elements and pupils’ achievement. The researcher has used Philip Hosford’s category to measure teacher’s ability to use the hidden curriculum elements in side the class room which are the following icons, T.E.M.P.O.

The researcher has chosen two class teachers from one school, the first is teaching 31 pupils at the third stage, and he is capable and keen to be very precise in the organization of his teaching plan putting Hosford’s category into consideration, the other teacher use his ordinary daily method of teaching and teach 31 pupils at the third stage as well. On the other hand the researcher laid down an exam paper in Arabic language taken from pupils’ syllabus in the end of the first term. The exam includes reading and writing paragraphs, Arabic Calligraphy and sentence construction (syntax).  To manipulate the pupils’ response on the exam, the researcher used Parsons Correlation to measure the validity of the questions. To examine the results of the study, the researcher used arithmetic average and standard deviation. The use of one sample T test and independent sample T test was to find any correlation between the tow classes’ results in terms of the previous subjects as variables.

The results of the study showed significance differences between the   performances of the pupils in both classes in favor of the first teacher’s pupils, especially in reading, writing and syntax.  For that, the researcher recommends to concentrate at the importance of the hidden curriculum elements in teaching and learning,

Key Words; Hidden curriculum, Achievement, Arabic Language. Primary stage, Reading, Writing, Arabic Calligraphy. And Syntax

The Influence of the applicable of Hidden Curriculum elements on pupils’ achievement in Arabic language at the primary stage

Introduction

     The Impact of Students’ Attitudes towards the Evaluation System on

Their Results in Some Academic Subjects

      Abstract

This study aims to investigate and measure the influence of students’ attitudes towards evaluation systems at the faculty of Arts at Al-Zaytoonah University of Jordan on their overall results in some academic subjects, namely; Curriculum and Teaching Methods.

A questionnaire has been designed, developed, and used to achieve such an aim.The          questionnaire consisted of 25 paragraphs or questions, using Lickert’s psychometric scale      for measuring the students’ responses to the questions asked. The validity and reliability      of the questionnaire had been examined by using Chronbach’s and Pearson’s correlation      methods. The results of the questionnaire were found to be coefficient and stable,              reaching an appropriate value of (0.78) and (0.825) respectively.

The researcher in this study tried to answer the following questions:

1-What are the attitudes of the students towards the evaluation system at the faculty of Arts?

2-Do the attitudes of the students vary in terms of their gender?

3-How do the attitudes of the students affect their final results in both subjects (Curriculum and teaching methods)?

4-Do the results in those courses vary in terms of student’s gender?

From the previous questions the researcher has formed four postulates, and many statistical equations have been used to examine the results. The results showed that the attitudes of students towards the evaluation system is generally positive, while in terms of gender the results showed that there is no significant statistical differences. This was because in both tests the T. Value was 1.93 which is not statistically significant in the level of 0. 41 and F.D. 35. This means that the tendencies of both Male and Female students towards the evaluation system are nearly equal. Accordingly, the researcher accepts the second zero assumption. By using Spearman- Brown’s correlation coefficient equation(R) the results proved there are no significant statistical differences between students’ attitudes towards the evaluation system and their results in the two suggested subjects. Moreover, by using KAI Square equation the study showed that there are significant differences at the level of 0.05 between the students’ achievement in both subjects in terms of their gender in favour of Female students. The researcher has explained the results in the discussion section of the results.

KEY Words: Assessment, Attitude, Alternative, Curriculum, Evaluation, Perception                                            Teaching Methods, Valuation,

Introduction:

The Concept of Evaluation has been associated with the traditional understanding of assessment methodology and rating of students’ responses to certain questions relating to certain subjects, and the way in which students respond to those questions in an examination environment.

Examinations usually reflect the aims and objectives of a given subject at a certain stage of education (Petty. G.2009.P.54). In other words, it is a judgement of students’ achievement and memorization of the imposed information given to the students through their text books and the teacher’s explanations. (Jalalah, 1999, P.31).

In some cases, evaluation systems become part of the educational reconstruction of the curriculum and its teaching methods; it means that evaluation through exams should be the first step in proposing appropriate means in avoiding mistakes and short falls in both the curriculum and the teaching methods applied. (Aqel, 2001, P.41).

Some educators have defined the evaluation system as an educational process to collect and analyse the results of the students. This was to determine the level he or she has achieved, their aims and objectives and to discover the strengths and weaknesses of their performance and to make a decision based on these outcomes. (Stenhouse, L.1978, p.73).

The previous definitions reflected the purpose of evaluations throughout their exams in the light of students’ achievements in gaining knowledge. But such variables represent part of the educational process and the outcomes of knowledge are part of a wide range of educational concepts. The scholars in the field of education have concentrated on students’ activities, skills and practical performance rather than knowledge achievements and marks given as a result of educational function. (Edgar. S & Sydney. M, 1976, P.145).

Due to the different definitions in evaluation, the University of Al- Zaytoonah of Jordan tried to use different types of methods of examination in order to evaluate and assess the students’ achievements, application of practical skills, performance and an overall picture of a student’s personality insofar as the teaching staff can do in this respect. (Al-Zaytoonah yearly prospectus 2013). Methods of Evaluation at AL-Zaytoonah University of Jordan.

The Faculty of Arts at the university (The scope of the study) used to conduct written exams three times within each term, there are two official terms and the third one (Summer Term) is an Alternative for students the grades are divided as follows:

20 marks for the first exam

20 marks for the second exam

50 marks for the last exam

The lecturer usually devotes 10 marks to the student’s activities and lecture tendency (attendance?) including doing research and presentation …etc this means that 90% of scores goes to student’s memorization and knowledge of the subject which they study while at the same time we are able to measure to what extend the teacher has achieved his/her goals and objectives of the subject taught during the term.

The questions are usually multiple choice, coupled with essays etc… The faculty use an online computer system to electronically assess students. However there is no alternative means or strategy for the evaluation process, for a student’s practical “hands-on” performance rather than theoretical questions and answers. This is vital, especially for theoretical fields of study, where exams may not be representative of a student’s ability to use the skills they have learned in practice, and where exams are limited as students have to display cognitive memory based reasoning under the pressure of time constraints.

And did not put forward a plan and an alternative strategy for evaluation process which for instance, depend on practical performance rather than theoretical questions and answers especially in theoretical fields. It means that most of exams are not useful as being forced to use reasoning skills under pressure rather than to use those in a practical life.

Some educators consider such traditional system as a consequence of residing and prompting philosophy, or express the idea of spoon feeding which still dominate our curriculum concept and construction, in the same time teaching methods in our schools and universities.

Problem of the Study:

The researcher has noticed that some students are not happy from the system used to evaluate their work and study efforts during the term. Because such system measures their mental ability to memorise and remember certain information in the time of exam, and to remember certain knowledge given during the course of study. Such system does not measure their ability to put theory in a real practice in their life (Abu-Dabat.Z.2009 P.301)

Some students complained that some circumstances prevent them from setting for exam others complains that they do not able to memorise information by heart and revise the accumulated information  every week, for that and for many other reasons the tradition system does not measure students’ educational level and cleverness , more over there is a dramatic increase in the number of faculty caught cheating

Accordingly, the mean time system does not reflect students’ skills, real abilities and still traditional in its concept, practice and results. The use of critical thinking (Inference, deductive, inductive, evaluation, and analyses) is very rare, unless the whole system of educational process from school grade up to the university should be revised and developed (Dyrson, 2004).

Operational Terms Definitions:

Valuation:

Adding to the previous definitions of valuation, in general it is the act of estimating how much something is work (oxford word power, 2003, p.818).It means that evaluation must be the last step in the valuation process, in order to give the right scores or the right opinion about how good, medium, and low the student’s work is.

Assessment:

To assess is to make a judgment and form an opinion about the value of something .In this respect the teacher is the valour of student’s level in the achievement of knowledge, or completing a certain project, or his cleverness  …etc that trough the process of evaluation in order to change what should be changed either in the educational system n general or in student’s behaviour in particular. Assessment process does the same function of feeding back after certain activity.

Examination:

To examine, means to act of looking something carefully ( oxford word power,2003,P.259).In educational field means the questions given to the students to be answered , either verbally or in writing, in order to measure his knowledge achievement, understanding, and abilities to use the accumulated information into practice.

Attitude:

There are so many different definitions for teacher’s attitudes towards something, one of those definitions is” the total response towards profession positively or negativity”. Such definition have been extrapolated from many definitions such as: the way that a person thinks, feels or behaves (oxford word power, 1999. P. 49). Others identify attitudes as psychological trends towards certain subjects with a certain degree, positively or negatively. (Eagle and Chicken , 1963. P.1).

In this respect, we can say that the attitudes towards evaluation are a hypothetical deductive concept which can be measured as a result of a certain conduct. (Burns, 1990, P.20). Generally speaking, attitudes towards evaluation based on two parallels, first of which Gee’s theory which is based on deep beliefs in the importance of the provision which has been identified as socio-cognitive perspective (Gee 2004, P.P116-132). The second theory is based on social constructive behaviour; such a concept would be connected with social beliefs, customs and traditions (Zygotes, 1998, P.P 114-116)

In relation to this theory, Richardson believes that the attitudes towards things means accumulated experiences. She stated that individual attitudes are constructed through years of practicing, reading, writing, listening, organizing, handling and solving problems and working in different fields etc. (Richardson, R. 1994, P.P 90-108).

According to what has been mentioned, the attitudes of the teacher towards teaching can be considered as the determinate of his/her behaviour in the profession or towards something (Glutei. M.2006, P.187).For instance, the quality of the attitudes reflects teacher’s occupational understanding of being a teacher (Can, 1987. P.160). Therefore studying the link between the terms of effectiveness and functional performance in teaching and learning for instance, is very important.

Generally speaking, the attitudes to a certain thing means, the tenderness push the person who is in charge to perform a particular conduct against the same thing (Lewis and Norwich, 2005, P.82).

Alternative Valuation:

There are alternative methods used for evaluation that fall under different categories which include, practical application of theoretical principles, the delivery of projects etc… Alternative evaluations related to the use of traditional strategy and modern concepts of evaluation concentrates on various aspects relating to the way in which a student acts. The activities they undertake, their understanding of their subjects and the way in which they interact with both students and staff in solving problems, as well as project development and of critical thinking skills are all alternative ways of evaluation. These have been classified as Inference, Deductive reasoning, Inductive, Evaluation, and Analyses.

Perception: There are many different meanings for such idiom, such as: knowledge Perception, auditory perception, kinaesthetic perception, depth perception….etc. But ultimately we mean a particular way of looking at or understanding something. (Oxford word wide,2003.P.549).

Previous Studies:

There has been extensive research conducted about students’ existing evaluation systems from the point of view of the student. One of those was conducted by Stephanie ,H., who tried to put forward a new theory , and construct a new system to support students’ ambitions and willingness in changing the traditional system which is based on knowledge of the classic , literacy and bureaucracy style of student evaluation. (See, Stephany, H. Learning forward.org) .

A comprehensive study done by Wikipedia about the exams system in China , (20013) showed that the government efforts have not been entirely satisfactory , leaking of exams questions and contents, bribery, and other abuses are still being constantly exposed.(Wikipedia.com).

Katrien Struyven (2002) has published a paper about students’ perception relating to their respective assessment system within higher education. She found out that students’ perceptions have a considerable influence on their approach to learning. And she goes on to explain that students approach the way in which evaluation systems are implemented. Furthermore, it was found that students hold strong views about different format and methods of assessment, for example, the favourable assessment system and method  was the conventional then the multiple choice in comparison with essay type question.

But when conventional and alternative assessments methods are compared, students perceive alternative as being fairer than the traditional methods.

Another article written by Changuls,S. stated that: “The estimation may not absolutely b correct , because the candidates performance which is being measured invariably ill-defend , or the marks may be a measure of the candidate’s knowledge or intelligence or power of expression or a combination of these  characteristics , therefore the marks assigned may vary from one examination to another. (Changule,S.S. 2009 ).

A study operated by Al-Rasheedy aimed at measuring the perception of science teachers in the state of Kuwait relating to the effect of alternative evaluation methods on students’ performance in the class room. He used his new strategies which were based on students’ activities and alternative assessment In 27 subjects. The results showed that the group chosen to conduct the assessment alternative methods mentioned previously have achieved the best results as opposed to the other group which surrendered to the traditional assessment. ( AL-Rasheedy,N. 2008).

Another study conducted by Massoud. S (2008) aimed at learning the effect of the use of a new evaluation strategy, to measure a students ‘ability to understand scientific concepts and to use critical thinking in their responses to the questions posed to them as part of this new strategy. The study revealed a positive relation between those new variables and the  students’ understanding of the scientific concepts and the way in which they applied critical thinking to this end.

Mustafa,A(2004) Has operated a study aimed at knowing the effect of the use of an alternative evaluation system on the achievements of the students in the National Education Subject of their choosing, and a means to measure their attitudes towards the strategy after its application. The researcher constructed three Tests:

1-Achevement test

2-Alternatve test

3-Attitudes test

The study showed that the students’ attitudes towards a new strategy were positive, and which resulted in the further development of this strategy, as it was found to adapt positively to the students’ academic abilities and skills.

Limitation and the population of the study:

The study was limited to the faculty of arts students at Al-Zaytoonah University of Jordan to two subjects:

1-    Curriculum, The concepts and foundations.

2-    Teaching methods for the essential primary stage.

The number of the students enrolled in the year 2003- 2004 in for two terms was 380 students, 272 Female students and 108 Male students.

The classification has been constructed according to the following variables, gender and academic subjects which is presented in Table No. (1).

Table No (1)

C. Curriculum Concepts & Foundations

T. Teaching methods

Data Collection Instruments:

A questionnaire was developed and designed to measure students’ attitudes towards

The Evaluation system currently in place at the university, and in the faculty of arts in particular. The questionnaire consisted of 25 paragraphs or questions, which were chosen from various scales, and were carefully considered for this study. The scale was organized using the Luckert Quarter scale, with the main focus being on creating a more engaging assessment whereby student would be more willing to answer questions honestly and openly.

The validity and reliability of the questionnaire was examined using Chronbach’s and Parsons correlation to adjust the paragraphs of the scale. The results of the questionnaire were found to be co-efficiently and stability, reaching an appropriate value of (0.78) and (0.825) respectively. Moreover, the questionnaire been accepted in its final form and after a review by the educational experts in the department of education.

The results were evaluated according to Luckert quarter scale and according to the following bands:

4 scores to the first response (Good Degree)

3 scores to the second response (Medium Degree)

2 scores to the third response (Little Degree)

1 score to the fourth response (V. Little Degree)

The researcher used statistical equations especially the mean of the scores collected, and standard deviation for each mean, T. Test and F. value to know whether there are any significant differences between the variables: Attitudes towards the evaluation system, students’ results in two academic subjects, and both female and male students.

Purpose of the study, Questions and Postulates:

With reference to the title, the following questions will be studied and examined:

1-What are the attitudes of the students towards the evaluation system at the faculty of Arts?

2-Do the attitudes of the students vary in terms of their gender?

3-How do the attitudes of the students affect their final results in both subjects (Curriculum and teaching methods)?

4-DO the results in those courses vary in terms of student’s gender?

Postulates of the Study

From the previous questions the researcher has formed the following postulates:

1-    The attitudes of the students towards the evaluation system are negative due to the many reasons mentioned previously according to students themselves.

2-    There are no statistically significant differences between students’ attitudes towards the evaluation system according to their gender.

3-    There are no statistically significant differences between students’ attitudes towards the evaluation system and their results in the both academic subjects.

4-    There are no statistically significant differences between students’ final results in the two academic subjects due to their gender.

The Results:

To answer the previous question and verify the validity of the assumptions, appropriate tests were used, and the results were demonstrated in the table below. To answer the first question A.M. Arithmetic Means and Standard Deviations of the paragraphs have been extrapolated, and the table below shows the results according to their responses consecutively.

Table No.(2) shows the results of the students’ Attitudes towards the evaluation system .

The results in table No.2 showed that the attitudes of students towards the current evaluation system are generally positive, with the Arithmetic Mean being 3 and over in more than 21 paragraphs out of 25. The Arithmetic Mean of all paragraphs was 3.46, and the results conclude that the student support the current system. Only 4 paragraphs received a result of less than 3. Despite such agreement in relation to the evaluation system, there are a number of students who want the evaluation system to be more comprehensive, theoretical and practical. Also most of the students would rather have multiple-choice questions rather than written exams.

The researcher believes that multiple–choice questions are easier for example than essay style questions. This can be explained due to the fact that multiple choice questions, list the answer which can trigger a students’ memory, and requires a slightly different methodology. For that reason a large number of students responded to paragraphs 2 and 3. Using an electronic online method came at the edge of the scale, as students showed reluctance in sitting an assessment which seemed both regimented and monotonous.

Those paragraphs which resulted in an Arithmetic Mean of less than 3 relates to a students’ interaction with their peers and their teacher, as well as group projects carried out in a classroom environment. According to the previous results, the researcher does not accept zero assumption.

To answer the second question relating to students’ attitudes based on gender the researcher has noticed that there are some differences between Male student’s responses and Female students’ responses. For instance the male students prefer written multiple-choice questions (3.73) whilst the female students prefer essay style questions (3.24). Also male student trends point towards a preference for oral assessments in conjunction with written exams (3.14) whilst female students prefer electronic (Online) methods of assessment which was based on an Arithmetic Mean (3.08).

The researcher believes that Female students’ ability to memorize educational knowledge and content is greater than that of male students’ ability to achieve the same. Despite that, the responses of both sides did not affect the results especially the calculation of Arithmetic Means, Standard Deviations and T .test values which has been conducted to determine whether there are any significant statistical differences.

At the level (0.05) between Male and Female, students’ response to the scales paragraphs are shown in Table No. (3)

Table No.(3) shows the differences between Female students and Male student responses relating to their attitudes towards the evaluation system.

Table No. (3)shows the results

X. Arithmetic-Mean

S.D. Standard deviation

F.D. Freedom Degree

S. Error. Standard of Error

S.S. Statistical Significances < 0.05

From the previous scale the results showed that no S.S. in the two tests, because the T. Value was 1.39 which is not Statistically Significant in the level of 0. 41 and F.D. 35. This means that the tendencies of both Female and Male students towards the evaluation system are nearly equal. Accordingly, the researcher accepts the second zero assumption.

To answer the third question, how do the attitudes of students affect their final results in both subjects (Curriculum and Teaching Methods) , the researcher used the Spearman-Brown correlation coefficient equation(R) to extrapolate whether there are any statistical significant differences at the level of 0.05 between the students’ attitudes towards evaluation system and their achievement in both subjects. The researcher used Brown’s equation to deal with the whole sample of the study.(Al-Jadry ,A .and Abu Helo,Y.2009 .P67).Table No. (4) Shows the results.

Table No.(4) shows the results

X. Grades sum of attitudes results

Y. Grades sum of Academic subjects results

R. Correlation Coefficient

From the above table, it can be said that the level of the attitudes is positive regarding students’ attitudes calculation of R. value 0.81, which is higher than P.value 0.05. Therefore the researcher does accept zero assumption and the positive attitudes students displayed towards the evaluation system, which had a positive impact on the students’ results.

Finally, to answer the fourth question, do the results in those courses vary in terms of student’s gender?

The researcher used KAI. Square to extrapolate whether there are significant differences at the level of 0.05 between the students’ achievement in both subjects in terms of gender. The researcher has used K² equation because the number of the two variables is not equal.

Table No.5 shows the results.

Table No.(5)

A.M. Arithmetic Mean

S.D, Standard Deviation

K² (KAI Square)

From the above figure it can be said that the A.M’s of students’ degrees in both subjects and according to their gender are varied. There are obvious differences in the results for both male and female students in favour of female Students. The researcher believes that female students displayed a better overall ability to memorize the information and the contents of the subject over male students. The results of K² showed there are significant differences at the level 0.05 between male and female student’s grades in both subjects in favour of female students. For that the researcher does not accept the fourth assumption.

Discussion of the results:

The results of the two variables (the attitudes and the results of the exams in both subjects) showed that the relation between them is fair and positive, but the attitudes towards the evaluation system did not affect the students’ marks negatively. From table No.1 it is clear that the students wanted dramatic change in the system used in the assessment of their work at the end of the term. We can read that in their responses to paragraphs 4-16. the Arithmetic mean was relatively high, and the averages were between 3.70-3.13. The study also showed that there was no difference between male and female students’ responses to the scale. This shows that all students irrespective of their gender wanted some change in the current system; although the Arithmetic mean and Standard Deviation showed that overall they accepted the system. According to the grades of the students in the two subjects, it was obvious that female student’s grades were higher than their male peers.

The researcher concluded that female students excelled in their ability to learn and retain course material for the current curriculum, and also their ability to recite the information they have learnt to gain more marks.

One of the reasons that may explain the disparity between female and male’s students’ grades might be explained as most of the male students work in order to pay their tuition fees, whilst the number of female students working is much smaller. There may be cultural reasons for this. As a result female students tend to have a lot more time for learning and completing the work assigned to them by the University. Furthermore the way in which the traditional curriculum is set out, and the traditional teaching methods and strategies used in the university especially in the faculty of arts emphasises on recitation of subject material, rather than assignments and project work.

Recommendations:

The researcher recommends the following:

1- The university of Al-Zaytoonah of Jordan in general and the faculty of arts in particular should revise the evaluation system to meet both students and the requirements of the society.

2-There are many types of evaluation and assessment systems. Accordingly, the evaluation procedures should be varied and combined.

3- Students’ opinions and suggestions should be considered and examined, and not be neglected.

4-Examination methods should evolve according to new elements within academic subjects and should include both theoretical and practical methods of evaluation.

5- The evaluation should be a mixture both oral and written.

6- Individual and group evaluations should be considered, where students work with their classmates in order to enhance their learning and learn to work as a team.

References

1-Abu-Dabat, Z, The Curriculums,            it’s Foundation and Contents (2007) Dar- Alfekr,             Amman-  Jordan (Arabic Text)

2- Algadry,A.and Abu-Helo,Y. (2009) The Methodological Foundation and Statistical             Usages in Educational Human Sciences Researches. Ithra Publishing and Distribution        . Amman, Jordan )Arabic Text)

3-Al-Rashedi,I.(2008) The  Perception of Science Teachers about an alternative evaluation strategies and the degree of their application in the primary classes. Theses presented for Ph.D degree. State of Kuwait (Arabic Text)

4-Al-Zaytoonah University of Jordan Prospectus (20012) Arabic Text

5-Ann Lewis and Braham,N. (2005)Special Teaching for  Special Children .Open University Press .London

6-Aqel,A. (20010) Towards better evaluation. Dar Al-Nahda Al-Arabiya .Amman Jordan

7-Burns,R.(1990) Essential Psychology. Lancaster, M.T.P.Press Ltd. Falcon   House, London  P.208-Can,G.(1987) .A Study on the understanding teaching profession. Journal of University Education College 2 (1) 159-170

8-Changule,S.S. (2oo9) Moderation System in Evaluation .Article base Website,September18,

9-Dyrson,M.(2004)Strategies of Teaching Reading 3ed edition .Dar Al-Ketab Al-Tarbawy.S.Arabiya.Dammam

10-Edgar,S. and Sidney,M. (1976)Teaching Practice, Problems and Perspectives. Methuen                     and Co. ltd.

11-Gee,J.P.(2004) Reading As Situated Language , A Sociocognitive Perspective.    Critical         Models and Processes of Reading. R.B.Riddell and N.J.Unran (EDS)  (5^th,ed.) New York                 P.P.(116-132),

12- Geoff Petty , (2009) Teaching Today, A Practice Guide .Fifth Edition, Nilson Thomes ltd.P.516

13-Gultekin,N.(2005)Teaching practices in teacher training programs. Eskisehir Publications                                                Anatoly University-Open Education College P.1-10

14-Jalalah,S.(1999)Modern Attitudes towards educational assessment .Al-Falah Publisher. Amman- Jordan (Arabic Text)

15-Katrien, S. AND others,(2002) Students’ Perceptions about assessment in Higher education .Paper presented at the joint Northumbria Earli.SIG. Assessment and evaluation Conference.August, 28-30

16-Larence Stenhouse , (1978) an Introduction to Curriculum Research and Development. Heinemann London

17-Massud, S. (2008) The Influence of using Basic Evaluation Strategies in Scientific Concepts Understanding and scientific Thinking .Theses presented for PhD Degree Kuwait Un.(Arabic Text)

16-Mostafa,A.(2004)The influence of using Alternative Evaluation system on Pupils’ Achievement in National education subject and their attitudes towards it. Theses Presented for PhD. Degree Arab- Amman University.

19–Oxford Word power (2003) 10^th Impression, Oxford University Press

20-Richardson,R. (1994) The Consideration of Teachers’ Beliefs. Teachers’ College Press. New York P.P.90-189

21-Solyman,A.(2010) The Measurement and Evaluation in Educational Process. Dar-Alfikr, Amman –Jordan (Arabic Text)

22-Stephanie,H. Building Professional Development of Support New Student Assessment System. Association.  Learning  Forwards. org.

23-Wikipedia.Ork.(2013) National Higher Education Entrance Examination.

24-Vygotsky, L.S.( 1978) Mind in Society ,The development of higher Psychology  Processes , Cambridge & Harvard University Press

Teaching strategies and their relation with some counselling variables during teaching training in primary schools in Jordan.

Abstract:                 

This study aimed at examining the influence of educational counselling on teaching performance of trainee students inside the classrooms. In particular, the trainee students would conduct the lessons in the classroom, which will be assessed based on pedagogical strategies. The lesson plans were created by the trainee students whilst being monitored. This specific research method is referred to as part of the teaching ‘system’. This method requires constant supervision of the trainee students, who personally establish set plans for the lessons, in order to provide guidance for set outcomes. The researcher conducted to study the effects of their teaching techniques, before and after the supervision by using independent sample t-test After analysing the results, they clarified that there are statistical differences between the performance of trainee students pre- counseling and post-counselling results, in favour of post-counselling in three out of four categories of strategic teaching .The study proves that there is significance differences between the counselor’s   results and school administration results. There are significant differences between the counselor’s results and the resident teachers. For that, the researcher recommends to concentrate at the continuous training students’ supervision in what we can call “microteaching classroom”,

Key Words: Counselling, Teaching Strategies, learning, Results,

Practical education, educational guidance

Introduction

Teaching requires intricate skills that are gained by specific training methods. The training that must take place is of great significance to the trainee teacher; therefore it has been made obligatory for the trainees to undergo practical and academic assessments.  The practical training entails not only the performance of the trainee in the class room, but also an assessment of the knowledge gained throughout their academic careers. They are required to prepare lessons, complete set tasks and cooperate with certain given circumstances of both the students and staff

(Maniel&Reynolds2007 P77) .

Some variables related to teaching practice

Educational Counsellor

It has therefore been established that guidance and a period of monitoring is an essential method of the training process. The role of the educational counsellor is to firstly produce several teaching techniques to accommodate various levels of competence. They also provide continuous efforts in visiting schools and assessing the teaching strategies that take place. It can therefore be argued that the educational counsellor plays a significant role above the trainee teachers, as their role entails a significant amount of duties. There are three aspects which can be examined for the school counsellor, firstly the role of the counsellor on duty and secondly the role of the counsellor in the school administration.

The teachers personal potentials vary, therefore the role of the school administration must accommodate to the variations of skills available by the teachers. The school manager in particular is an individual who identifies the potentials of the teachers. The manager can also encourage the students to excel in their creative skills, and provide them with a unique learning experience. According to “the character theory” expressed by (Williamson and Peterson 1965), it is explained that “personality” has a significant role in forming an educational career. According to this notion it is suggested that the guidance provided to these students shapes and forms their personalities and attitudes. It is further suggested that the common element between the development of the personality and counselling is the ‘integrative and connective human relationship’ (Williamson and Patterson 1965).

Educational Administration

Education counselling is a humanitarian process, which aims to exhibit the human character in order for the counsellor to grasp the true nature of the individual. This is a certain strategy that improves the educational process in terms of the ‘general codes of education’ ( Oqaili,S. & others .2001) . As for DV Tesone he produced a correlation between supervision and administration, as it is claimed that both fields require a set of motivated goals within each stage of production (Tesone 2005 p.7), Tesones main concern was concerned with supervision and manufacturing administration.

(Thomas Sergiovanni and Rober Starrat 2002, p4) differentiated between the counsellor role and his function, it was assumed that his role in education (before visiting the classroom) was to cooperate with educational administration and set  a comprehensive strategy for the guiding process which would guarantee these goals. But as for his strategies it includes visiting classrooms, in order to improve the teacher’s proficiency. This is specifically done by taking notes and observing the strategies within the classroom.  The two researchers express that the councillor has to follow the evaluating instructions given by the ministry, state or certain educational decision makers (Sergiovanni &Starrat 2002)

Resident teacher

: Counselling ad educational guidance are seem to contain several misconceptions, one of which suggests that the counsellor should meet with the resident teacher to evaluate trainee students performance.  The second misconception includes the ‘group guidance’ where the counsellor should meet the group of trainee teachers and guide their performance.  H. Tuba and her colleague R. Hill (1973) refers to the importance of focusing on teaching strategies that guarantee the terms of the curriculum. These terms should be considered during setting, training and guiding teachers (Stones & Morris 1979 p.179).  Some education specialists examined the idea of comparing between guiding and supervision. They concluded that each function had its own role Supervision for instance; according to those specialists is the final step of the process which originated with the process of inspection, then later to guidance and then ending in supervision. On the other hand, guidance and supervision are two terms that re considered different in meaning but coordinate functionally. Their goal is to improve the educational system within all aspects (Khatib, I.& Amal,I. 2003. p39)

Group act counselling

There are certain perceptions and advanced administrative as well as education ideas that consider teamwork. In other words, guidance and supervision must be considered within a group.  The practical work involves all that is concerned within the educational process. Certo is a specialist in administration science believes that success is accomplished if others are offered with advice (Certo, S. 2003). This opinion focuses on the importance of involving those concerned with the educational process to improve their teaching and learning. D.V Tesone connected between supervision and administration. Both of them are concerned with what others should achieve throughout every stage of production (Tesone D.V., 2005, p7) .

Definitions of the study:

Practical education:

This definition comprises the sum of facts, notions, application of knowledge and certain aspects a student must achieve within his academic study (Lewis & Norwish, 2005 p133).

Educational counceling:

The effort paid by the educational counsellor to organise and direct the development of the trainee teachers, individually counselling as well as within groups, in order to grasp a better understanding of teaching and more efficiently. This is so they are able to monitor the progression of each student, building a democracy (fairness) within the community at school. (Al-Ibrahim, 2002, p13-14)/

A certain notion by Tafish ,M. suggests that educational counselling is an ‘art’, a cooperative process by which and educational specialist aims to improve both the teaching and learning within an institution. This is achieved in an ethnographical way, the counsellor would observe the processes within the classroom, and analyse. This is also done by them providing guidance in order to improve their performance in the classroom. The improvement on their abilities to participate and socialise by providing them with necessary knowledge, values and habits (Tafesh, M.p70)

Certain educational specialists believe that counselling is a process, by which the individual receives guidance that would enable them to establish a role within their community/society.  It is also a process where the teacher can develop new skills, and build up their character within the work force. (Abu Ghazala ,H. p3).

Briggs in particular indicates that counselling has a significant impact on the roles students may have in society. It is also argued that it is an ongoing effort to encourage and direct the self growth of teachers to become more productive in achieving educational goals (Al-Ibrahim,A. 2002 p14)

Teaching strategies:

Teaching strategies are plans a teacher constructs before they begin lessons, they include all elements of the curriculum such as: inputs, procedures, outputs, feedback, and certain techniques in order to achieve classroom goals. Moon, 2007 p97)

Performance of the students is an aspect that is produced as a result of teaching strategies. It is prevailed by the progress presented by the pupils in the classroom, as well as outside the classroom mainly concerning their extra curricular activities and personal flair. (Stones and Morris 1997, P96)

Problems of the study

Despite the significance of counselling and supervision within the educational process, and specifically within the desire to achieve set goals; it can be argued that performances in this field are considered to not measure up to standards. This is due to the fact that, as an educational teaching strategy-it has not encompassed long term planning for the development of the pupils and the teacher. Therefore a selective amount of educational specialists based in Jordan and surrounding Arab countries, have concluded that old traditional forms of counselling presently occur, scarcely benefiting the teachers (Tafish,M. p16). An observation made by a British visiting teacher to the Middle East suggested that the teachers on training did not make full use of the fruitful criticisms made, the teacher would then proceed with lessons without counselling, and the school administrator follows up the teacher’s preparation (Al- Saje,M. 1999).

Counsellors mainly form suggestions and ways to improve teaching, however it is also considered that counsellors may provide negative feedback towards the teachers; this can hinder their performance and decrease their confidence.

Previous Studies

The researcher has conducted a research about students’ standards in practical teaching in Saudi Arabia. The study asserted the influence of theoretical studies on students practical performance in side the classroom (Abu- Dabat, Z, 1982) . Zuhdi,M.(1993) studied the expectations of essential primary school teachers from educational supervisors . The researcher found out that the expectations were higher than the supervisor’s performance.

Shawkat ,M.(1978) followed up the development of supervision sector in educational field  in Jordan, but Adnan ,M. &Yosof,M.(1971) managed to examine the influence of educational supervision on secondary schools teachers in Jordan , the results were positive .

As for the research conducted, many scholars have produced regional and national conferences, one in particular was carried out by Abed Al Rahim Quasmih in the ‘Educational counselling’ conference held in Irbid 1986.

The main concern was the reality of counselling in Jordan, covering both negative and positive aspects. Mohammad Dwaik had also contributed to the conference with opinions on counselling. However Khaled Al Omari conducted a conference held by the ‘ministry of education in Amman, 1979, concerning the connection between counsellors and teachers. This specific talk was closely related to the issues discusses between teacher and counsellor relationships. On the other hand, a study produced by Abdullah Baha Al-Deen ans Sihab Sayed form the University of Baghdad, emphasise the positive statistical relationship between the educational and the choice of students in a certain area of subjects.

In the United States for instance, there is considered to be no connection between counselling and productivity (of both students and teachers). Specialists stress on the direct relationship between the variables, as each one affects each other in periodical and comprehensive ways. Counselling is based on suggestions made by (Tomas Sergiovanni and Robart Starrat, 2002. P266-267). These scholars carried out practical studies on a group of students; they established strong relationship with statistical indications between practical and scientific applications in terms of the data collected for counselling, cooperation with counsellors and tendency to teaching. Both specialists ensured the two counsellors from the study sample formed a connection with the teachers, the two specialists then concluded that the outcome of the study was positive and, in terms of the progress made by the students and the information provided to teachers. This study demonstrates a positive outcome towards the productivity and success of counselling.

Aims of the study:

The research aims to evaluate the extent of the progress of trainee students, both before and after the counselling process.  The student performance list has been approved by the Al-Zaytoonah private university in Jordan, to assess the performance of its students during the counselling.

The procedures:

The surveyor documented the evaluations made at practical education, the students were assed in four groups as follows:-

1. Inputs classified in 16 degrees
2. procedures classified in 72 degrees
3. outputs classified in 8 degrees
4. feedback classified in 4 degrees

Total=100 degrees as shone in Table 1 below

Table 1

Questions acknowledged within the research:

1. Has the progress of the students’ changed in the field mentioned before or after degrees?
2. Is there any progress in the students’ performance in the four fields collectively?
3. Is there any progress in the students’ performance according to the counsellor and resident teacher?
4. Is there any progress in the students’ practical performance according to the evaluation of the counsellor and the school master?

Assumptions:

According to pre-asked questions, the researchers assumed:

1. There are no statistical differences in the students’ results before and after counselling according to the previous four fields.
2. There are no statistical differences between the trainee students before and after the counsellor directs a counselling variable.
3. There are no differences between counsellor degrees

4.     There are no statistical differences between the degrees of the       counsellor and the school master as a counselling variable:

Sample of the study

The trainee students were divided equally by the teaching staff, during the first and second academic semesters. The survey lasted for an entire academic year, ensuring that enough time to carry out the investigation.  Each researcher evaluated 30 students (9 male and 21 female), that the total number of female students in the classroom.

In the department of human sciences, this is part of the faculty of arts. The students were distributed randomly at these schools.

1. Um Al Basatin elementary school (government)
2. Al Zahra comprehensive secondary school (private)
3. Pioneer Private school
4. Al Zahra comprehensive secondary school (government)
5. The holy land school
6. Al Ibrahimi secondary school (Private)
7. Al Royal Private School

The survey samples are considered as a proportionally stratified sample and represent 30% of the total number of the students from practical education. This percentage is considered sufficient to carry out the procedure.

Results of the Study:

The answers to these questions clarify the importance of educational counselling to improve the students’ progress, as well as the teaching progress.  It also exemplifies the importance of the resident teachers counselling the trainee students. The master of the school is also included in the following table, which indicates the results.

First Assumption;

The first assumption suggests that ,there are no statistical differences between the students performance before and after counselling” as a first variable (according to the four fields, inputs, procedures, evaluations and feedback). The independent sample test was then conducted.

Table 2 shows the statistical results according to the four fields before and after counselling. Table 2 also shows a difference in the field of inputs before and after counselling. The average for this field is (3.8) and after counselling is (9.43), the statistical indication value to this test was (0,086) which are higher than the approved value (0, 05) in these studies. But the results showed that there are statistical differences in the field of procedures (marks out of 72), the field of evaluation (marks out of 8) and in the field of feedback (marks out of 4) before and after counselling. This was due to the test results of these fields which were less than (0, 05). The differences were in favour of marks after counselling. The average of these marks after counselling were (9.54, 5.6, 3.3) and they were higher than marks before counselling which were (3.48, 4.93 and 2.73)

The researcher assumes that there are no differences in the field of inputs because the students of practical education completed the terms regarding forming behaviouristic goals and readiness for teaching. The two forms are taught to students in different topics, whereas certain teaching procedures in the classroom have differences in three distinctive fields, this is due to certain procedures of counselling that students enjoy, also due to their experience in practical teaching (as a result of counselling), the students were able to cope with newer situations in the classroom (teaching, evaluation and feedbacks).

The second assumption:

To test the second assumption which states “There are no statistical differences between the students performance before and after counselling, as the first variable”. The independent ‘T’ test was then conducted.

Total :

Table number 3 shows the results according to the four fields before and after counselling. It indicates that there are no differences between the student’s performance before and after counselling, this is evident due to the statistical indication which is valued at 0.003 which is less than 0.005. That difference was indicted after the counselling degrees 3.73, which had increased after the counselling degrees of 1.64,

The researcher believes that the difference between the students’ performance before and after counselling is considered more productive after the counselling process. This was due to the cooperation of the headmaster, counsellor and trainee students, this further reinforces the positive aspect to counselling and the follow-ups produced for each teacher’s performance in the classroom. The results therefore proved that the counsellor has an active role in enabling the teacher to perform more effectively in the classroom.

The third assumption:

It is suggested that “There are no statistical differences between the degrees of trainee students, in accordance to the counsellor’s views as a first variable and the resident teacher as a second variable”, the independent sample T test was conduced and the results were as follows:

Total:

Table number 4 clarifies the statistical results of the counsellor and the resident teacher at the end of the practical training period, which implied no statistical difference between the degrees of the counsellor, and the resident teacher. This is due to the fact that the value of the test had resulted in 0.001 less than 0.05; these differences were in favour of the resident teacher as the average of the resident teacher degrees was 88.23; higher than the average counsellor degrees that valued at 73.57.

The researcher believes that the differences between counsellor degrees and the resident teacher (school teacher supervising the trainee student) were mainly due to the school teachers’ supervision on the trainee student and the results of the trainee student in terms of progress. Therefore it can be suggested that constant counselling improves the teaching process in the classroom, and improves the issues mentioned previously.

The fourth assumption:

The fourth implies that “there are no statistical differences between the counsellor degrees as the first variable and the school master as a second variable” an independent sample T test was conducted.

The results were as follows:

Total

Table number 5 indicates that there are differences between the counsellor’s degrees and the school master degrees, due to the value of statistical indication, which is valued at 0.001, and is therefore less than 0.05. These differences are in favour of the school master, the average of degrees was 58.43 which are valued higher than the counsellor’s degrees at 73.57.

The researcher believes that the differences in counsellor degrees and the headmasters degrees was due to the high progress made by the students, as a result of constant cooperation between the counsellor and the school administration. These observations were made as the researcher made contact with the school administration and trainee students. The discussion mainly consisted of the trainee students’ performance, and how it can be developed according to the four fields which form together the teaching process within the classroom. The school administration was positive and continuous guiding and cooperative.

Recommendations:

The researcher recommends the counselling as an educational value and not only a job, has it required:

1. Educational theories and experiences should be transferred to teachers, as well as keeping them well informed of the educational process.
2. The exchange of experience between counsellors and teachers, especially the experienced professionals in that field.
3. Measuring the process made by the teachers after every educational visit.
4. Counselling should start at the beginning of the practical education programme, in order to put the education theories under application.
5. Discussing the entire education process (with no expectations) wit teachers and educational administrators.

References

1-Abu-Dabat,Z. Evaluating Teaching Skills Of Trainee   Students At Faculty Of Education . King Abdul-Azeez University (1992). Scientific Magazine for science & Culture. Tunisia. (Arabic Text )

2-Abu-Gazaleh, D. Supervision Guide Book, No Date, (Arabic Text)

3-  Al-Ibraheem, A.B. Educational Supervision, Patterns & Methods , (2002) Hamada Establishment, Irbed . First Ed. (Arabic Text)

4- Al-kateeb, I.Y. & Amal ,I. Educational Supervision, Methods & Applicable. (2003) . Kandeel Publishers, Amman –Jordan .(Arabic Text)

5- Al-Oqaily ,S. & Others ,  Supervision Evolution & Development . (2002) .King Saud University, Faculty Of Education (Arabic Text )

6-Al-Sajee , M. Containing  Educational Supervision , (1999) An Article in Al-Rai News paper ,Amman Jordan ( Arabic Text )

7-Ann Lewis & Braham Norwich. Special Teaching fore Special Children. (2006) Open University Press, London

8- Certo, S.C. Supervision, Concepts & Skills Building, (2003). McGraw-Hill Irwin. New York.

9- Daniel Muijs & David Reynolds. (2007) Effective Teaching, Evidence & Practice. Sage Publications ltd. Third ed.London.

10-  Jenever,A. Moon. Reflection in Learning & Professional Development. Theory & Practce (2007).Rutledge falmer. Third, ed. London

11- Patterson, C.H. (1973). Theories of Counseling & Psychotherapy. N.Y. Harper & Row.

12- Sergiovanni, T.J., & Starrat, R.J. (2002). Supervision, a Definition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 7^th edition.

13-Stones, E., & Morris, S. (1976). Teaching Practice, Problems and Perspectives, Fletcher and Son Ltd. Norwich.

14-Tafesh,M. Creativity in Educational Supervision & Administration,(No Date) Dar Al-Forkan ,Irbed, Jordan

15-Tesone, D.V. (2005). Supervision Skills for the Service Industry. Person, Prentic Hall, New Jersy.

16-Williamson, (1965). Vocational Counseling. New York, McGraw-Hill.

Critical thinking, Skills and Habits

Abstract

Critical thinking comprises of a combination of complex skills and at the same time, its habit of thought is used in society, and will pervade its entire mores, because it’s a way of taking up the problems of life.   William Graham’s words gave a great example of critical thinking in a certain society. Men educated in it cannot be Stampeded by stump orators, they are slow to believe they can not hold things as possible or probable in all degrees, without certainty and without Pain.

(William1940)

   They can wait for evidence and weigh evidence, influenced by the emphasis or confidence with which assertions are made on one side or the other. They can resist appeals to their dearest prejudices and all kinds of cajolery. Education in the critical faculty is the only education of which it can be truly be said that it makes good citizens, that is why we encourage our students to train and use critical thinking in their studies, workshops, examinations, professionals, and in debates and arguments.

   In fisher’s delimitation we read: critical thinking in purposeful and reflective judgement about what to believe or what to do in response to observations, experience, verbal or written expressions, or argument.

   Critical thinking might involve determining the meaning and significance of what is observed, expressed, or a given inference or argument. This determines whether there is adequate justification to accept the conclusions as true (Alec and Scriven, 1997).

    Hence, this definition points out that ‘reflective thinking’ is seen as a ‘skilled’ active interpretation and evaluation of observations, communications, information, and argumentation. Parker and Moore define it more narrowly as the careful, deliberate determination of whether one should accept, reject, or suspend judgement about claim and the degree of confidence with which one accepts or rejects it.

   Critical thinking gives due consideration to the evidence, the relevant criteria for making the judgement well, the applicable methods and techniques for forming the judgement, and the applicable theoretical constructs for understanding the nature of the problem and questions at hand.

   According to what had been noticed, critical thinking employs

not only logic which had been denied by Dewey and pragmatic school, but according to those  it is a broad intellectual criteria comprising of clarity, credibility, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, significance and fairness. In other words , it is complex to achieve and requires a range of skills.

Key words ; critical thinking , habits , skills , reflective thinking . Critical  Dualism , induction and refutability

  Introduction:

  Eloquent Metaphor

   Critical thinking is often seen as a new subject, despite the name being new. the subject and what it entails is not. “Those of us engaged in it are best dwarfs, standing on the shoulders of giants”, as been described by Hakes In this position of course dwarfs are suppose to be able to see further than the giant especially when he owns the main features of Induction, Analysis &Evaluation. Those are different than B. Bloom’s category of epistemology & knowledge objectives  which been used mainly to understand thee main mental ladder steps and to answer the question what we should learn? but critical thinking direct us to answer the question how we learn? and why we should follow the steps of our mind’s activities?

Historical back ground

   For some people, one of the greatest thinkers of all time is Peter Abelard (1079 – April 21, 1142) and many people saw him as the greatest philosopher. Since Aristotle, Abelard was the pre-eminent philosopher and theologian of the century. He was the teacher of his generation and was a famous poet and musician. Prior to the recovery of Aristotle, he brought the native Latin tradition in philosophy to its highest level.

   His genius was evident in all he did. He is arguably the greatest logician of the middle ages, and is equally famous as the first communalist philosopher. He championed the use of reason in the matters of faith, and he was the first to use theology in its modern sense. He was the first who spoke about philosophy in language (Jacobin 2004), and its partner the mind.

   Aristotelian philosophy of mind offers two analyses of intentionality, the co  formality theory suggests that we think of an object by having its every form in the mind, the resemblance theory then suggests that we have a mental image in the

Mind that naturally resembles the object.

   However Abelard rejects these notions and instead proposed an adverbial theory of thought, showing that neither images of mental contents need to be countenanced as ontologically independent of the mind (Walks, 1993). Abelard gave contextual explication of intentionality that relies on a linguistic account of mental representation, adopting a principle of compositionality of understanding.

   For us. Socrates (469-399 B.C) (best known as the Greek philosopher who drank hemlock) was the first thinker who used critical thinking in his pedagogy and arguments with students.

   He laid the early foundations for western philosophical thought, his ‘Socratic method’ involved asking and probing questions in a give and take which would eventually lead to truth.

     Through his portrayal in Plato’s dialogues, Socrates has become renowned for his contribution to the field of ethics, and it is this Platonic Socrates who lends his name to the concepts of Socratic irony, and the Socratic Method. The latter remains a commonly used tool in a wide range of discussions, and in a type of pedagogy in which a series of questions are asked not only to draw individual answers, but to encourage the fundamental insight into the issue at hand.

Epistemology & Logic

     It is Plato’s Socrates that also made important and lasting contributions to the fields of epistemology and logic, also the influence of his ideas and remains strong in providing a foundation for much western philosophy that followed (Kaufman 1998).

     One of those was John Dewey (1859-1952) the first philosopher who used the term reflective thinking in the 20^th century; his theories in education had a profound influence on public education, especially in the U.S.A.  During his distinguished academics career, which began in 1884 at the University of Michigan, Dewey was a strong promoter of what was called instrumentalism (related to the pragmatism of Charles Pierre and William James) and the radical reform of the public education  system.

   His view held no room for eternal truth outside human experience, and he advocated an educational system with continued experimentation and vocational training; in order to equip students to solve practical problems.  This was done by

using his method of critical thinking, or reflective thinking.

    Dewey in his theory of instrumentalism was influenced by his teacher George S. Morris; under his direction Dewey studied Hegel, whose all encompassing philosophical system temporarily the Dualism of traditional philosophy. And turn from logic and inductive to deductive thinking.

Critical Thinking in Dewey’s-Popper’s-&Holmes’ Methodology of Thinking

John Dewey (1859-1952) was a leading proponent of the American school of thought known as: pragmatism: Such theory focused on: experimental logic: rather than what was called Dualistic epistemology. Dewey rejected the old concepts of grasping knowledge in favour of a naturalistic approach, which viewed knowledge as arising from the motive adaptation of the human organism to its environment (John Dewey, Encyclopaedia of   philosophy, 1).

Dewey has been influenced by Darwin’s theory of natural selection which concentrated on the complex interrelationships between organism & environments. Such concept led Dewey to the idea of persistent & changeable society & world. Dewey’s pragmatic theory of truth has conceded red as central to the pragmatic school of thought.

The second element of Dewey’s theory of thought is Reflective thinking, he maintained that processes of reflective thinking to the educative process were scientific. (Dewey, 1979 p.145)

In the same line, but from a different intellectual perspective, Karl Popper (1902-1994) had rejected the theory of logic & inductive thinking in favour of deduction and reflective thinking. Popper coined the term critical rationalism accordingly and to describe his philosophy: logic for Popper was part of ancient history and closed societies which developed and nourished by Plato, Marx, Hopes etc.

His view been converted to open society and liberalism, based on human rights (Carr, 2006 p.113).  Such vision of a new wide scope , a new life , a new liberal  society ,science and education  led Popper to the idea of critical dualism and scientific rationalism in his book ‘the open society and its enemies , ( Popper, 1966 p.p. 59-73)  . The new terms indicate his rejection of classical empiricisms of the observation list – inductivity account of science that had grown out of it.  Popper argued strongly against the later holding that scientific theories are abstract in nature, and can be tested only indirectly by reference to their implications.  He also held that scientific theory and human knowledge generally is irreducibly conjectural or hypothetical and is generated by the creative imagination in order to solve problems that have arising in specific historic- cultural settings. (Popper’s  philosophy, Encyclopaedia of philosophy).

Popper’s ideology affected his educational  theory especially in the field of curriculum planning.  Because any discussion of education is political and ideological in other meaning education reflects the broader framework of values in a certain society and reflects the framework of the philosophers and their ideas about the educational system and methodology .Politically, values according to the liberalism for example come closer to the actual political and economic circumstances that prevail within a certain liberal society .Those  values contrast of course with  the values in a non – liberal world such as totalitarianism.(Carr 2006 p.111)

Popper argued; Instead of encouraging the student to devote himself to his studies for the sake of studying, instead of encouraging in him a real love for his subject and for enquiry, he is encouraged to study for the sake of his personal career – he is led to acquire only such knowledge as is serviceable in getting him over the hurdles which he must clear for the sake of his advancement.. I do not know a better argument for an optimistic view of mankind, no better proof of their indestructible love for truth and decency …than the fact that this devastating system of education has not utterly ruined them. (Lawton 1986 p.145).

 Brian Holmes (1920 -1993 ) based his methods of problem solving on the reflective thinking of Dewey and the critical dualism of Popper.  The problem approach ‘has  transformed the study of education from the description of traditional  systems to an analysis of problems .

The three opinions of Dewey , Popper and Holmes have important implications for the educationist who wishes to attempt to make method and technique in his research and study more precise ( Gezi,1971 p .p 15-16).                       

The scientific approach has turned away from history and the traditional social  sciences .  In Holmes’ words “  there has been a movement away from searching for historical factors or antecedent causes of contemporary events to an interdisciplinary  endeavour to explain and predict behaviour and institutional changes “  (Holmes,1965p.51 ) , and these “trends  reflect not so much a shift of emphasis away from identification and description , but rather an increase of interest in the role they play in explanation which are held to be important in the social sciences” .( Holmes, 1973 p.8).                             

In other wards . the reflective thinking of Dewey ,the critical dualism of Popper and  the problem approach of Holmes are sophisticated in their theoretical assumptions and clear in their purposes .  Some brief account of these assumptions and purposes is advisable in this paper .

Reflective thinking

Holmes adopts the idea of reflective thinking offered by John Dewey . According to Dewey where reflective thinking occurs , there is always a sense of confusion.  This confusion is reduced by reflective thought which “is an adjustive  mechanism “ (Skilbeck, 1970 p.p 26-27).

Thinking and reflective enquiry are thus for Dewey and Holmes not merely processes of description or explanation , but processes by which an indeterminate situation is transformed into a determinate situation. Such wide scope and understanding of the reflective thinking role in education left its fingerprints on the moderate theories of education , especially concerning reflection in learning , for Mezirow , Brookfield , Habermas & others. In Habermas’s  words  “Reflection in the transformative learning stage enable the learner to take a critical overview and amass further understanding of a professional or social situation or the self or their knowledge , which can lead to emancipation. In other words . it can operate in a Meta – cognitive manner, enabling a view to be taken of the cognitive structure and it’s functioning or of the whole self .Reflection in the stage is in accord with the emancipator level of human interests” (Habermas 1971) .Mezerow (1990) provides examples of ways in which reflection of this type can enable transformative learning such as consciousness raising groups and the use of critical incident   analysis   . (Moon   ,2007 P153).

 Thus , in Holmes’s work , the selection of the problem, the choice of starting point for analyses and especially the clarifications of one problem are interrelated and grounded in theory.  Similarly solutions to problems are to be understood in terms of Dewey’s ideas .  Dewy in his reflective thinking approach concentrated on  anticipating  the  consequences of deferent ways and lines of action.  The hypothesis in reflective thinking represents a possible solution. About the consequences Dewey said “ by putting the consequences of deferent ways and lines of action before the mind , it enable us to know what we are about when we act” (Skilbeck,1970 P.26) .                  

Thus, within this frame -  work , in the Holmesian problem approach the hypothesis is formulated as the policy designed to solve the problem.  Hence   the term “the problem – solving approach “.Successful explanation occurs when the logical deduction of consequences from the hypothesis as solution are correctly predicted .  Holmes argued about this scientific formula “ the  problem approach implies that understanding of  social educational processes comes form successful prediction rather than as in some epistemologies through the discovery of antecedent causes (Holmes,&Edwards1973 P.53 ) .

Critical  Dualism , induction and refutability

Holmes also draws the concept of ‘critical dualism from  Karl  Popper . In his book ‘The open society and its enemies ‘Popper took a post, relativity view of science.  His methodology asserts and assumes that some regularities operating within a social environment are similar to those found to man’s physical surroundings. Such sequences of social events can be stated in sociological laws. Commenting on the assumption of critical dualism, Holmes has stated “Within any society  there are causal relations whose operation can be understood through the establishment of sociological laws.

These relationships are functional and constitute a deterministic element.  It is the study of the relevant sociological laws that constitutes the science of education or if preferred the scientific study of education.” ( Holmes & Edwards,1973 P.53 ).

Sociological laws refer to those aspects of man’s social environment which are outside his immediate ability to  control , they have the same kind of relationship to the world that natural laws bear to man’s physical environment. 

However, according to critical dualism, in any society there can be identified and distinguished two types of law-normative and psychological. The important characteristic of norms and normative laws is that they can be either accepted or changed by man.  They are statements about what ought to be.  “In practice normative laws find most obvious expression in a legal code or a written constitution like those of the USA, France and previous USSR.  They are statements of what   ought to be the case’.  But innumerable codes of behaviour, taboos, values, beliefs, ideas are more or less formalised by rules of behaviour or commands, and are accepted (or challenged) by individual members of a society in which they are found.”  ( Holmes& Edwards1973 P.51 )

The two kinds of law can be used to understand the operation of social institutions or organisations such as schools, insurance companies, industrial concerns, trade unions an so on.  

There is another pattern – the environmental – which does not arise directly from the assumption of critical dualism.  This pattern may be constructed from the data relating specifically to the natural resources of a country, e.g. demography.  Holmes then offers through these three types of statement, a general social taxonomy for problem analysis, the base of which is critical dualism:  “The general and comprehensive classification scheme is based upon the distinction. Popper draws between Normative statements about institutional relationships in society.  A third category of data includes information about the natural environment.”  (   Holmes. 1973 P.52  )

In turn, this social taxonomy is based on methodology which rejects induction.  Popper argues that the whole method of induction is the wrong way round, answers can be given only to questions, they do not emerge in some mysterious way from the assembly of data.” ( Johnson &  Wason, 1979 P.258 ).

Thus, according to Popper, whenever we collect data we do so with an explicit or implicit question in mind about data.  Data should be used to refute a falsify theory.  Here Popper was influenced in his views by Einstein.  Popper wrote “my main idea in 1919 was this.  If somebody proposed a scientific theory, he should answer as Einstein did, the question, under what conditions would I admit that my theory is untenable? In other words, what conceivable facts would I accept as refutations, or falsifications of my theory.” (  Johnson  &  Watson, 1979 P.74 ).

Overall, Holmes adopts and adapts the three themes – critical dualism, a rejection of induction as a proper basis for scientific work, and a stress on the testing of hypotheses for the problem approach.  It is equally true of Holmes that generally speaking “  In his hypothetic-deductive view of science there is no place for inductive logic.” ( Johnson &Wason,1979 P.258 ).

Theory of Social Change

Holmes ’theory of social change stresses asynchronous change in society, which is useful in the identification and intellectualisation of problems in comparative studies and in the formulation of hypotheses.  In general Holmes argues that “in the light of many theories of social change, problems arise from asynchronous change in society. “  (  Holmes,1965 P.74) .     

Thus, if all the relevant parts of the social order change at the same time and the same place, then no problem arises. From  inconsistencies in the rates of change in a) Institutions, b) Norms, C) General environmental circumstances. 

Holmes points out that “Here social change is considered to be the sequence of events initiated by configurations.”   (Holmes 1965 P.74 )

Change in any one aspect of social life is considered to be a sequence of events initiated by innovation in (any one of) the three social configurations while other aspects of these patterns lag behind.  In such situations, social problems may arise because of inconsistencies in the lag between theory and practice, norms and institutions or, institutions and environment.  Concretely Holmes argues thus “One institution may have changed more radically that another, which is functionally related to it, or the aims of education (norms) may change before institutions have been revised to achieve the new aims, or the natural environment may place obstacles in the path of achieving stated goals.”  ( Holmes , 1965 P.P.74-75 ).

To such identified and intellectualised problems, hypotheses are policy solutions and may involve identifying both change and relative non-change. Holmes says “for the purpose of analysis it may be assumed that a change (or innovation) occurs in any societal aspect and the task of intellectualisation involves identifying both the change and relevant (or perhaps relative) not change.(Holmes,1978 P.89 ).

 Finally , and according to Holmes’ theory of social change social problems may arise because of lags between elements classified as normative, institutional or environmental. 

How we think?

   *According to Classer, the ability to think critically involves three things;

1)   An attitude of being disposed to consider in a thoughtful way the problems and subjects that come within the range of ones experiences.

2)   Knowledge of the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning.

3)   Skills in applying those methods. (Classer 1941).

*According to the previous points, a well cultivated critical thinker should;

1)   Raise vital questions and problems formulating them clearly and precisely.

2) Gather and assess relevant information using abstract      ideas to interpret it effectively

3) Come to well reasons conclusions and solutions, testing        them against relevant criteria and standards.

4)   Think open-mindedly within alternative systems of thought, recognising and assessing, as need be, their assumptions, implications and practical consequences

5)   Communicate effectively with others in figuring out solutions to complex Problems without being overly influenced by others thinking on the topic.(William .S. 1940)

Critical Thinking as an Applicable methodology.

  One of our main aims in education is to cultivate such habits in our youngster’s minds, to be part of their skills in thinking. One may asks if the teacher can train his pupils in the early stage using this kind of thinking.

   I say yes, we as teachers can let our youngsters in the kinder gardens & primary schools to use critical thinking in order to solve their problems in learning.

   I give an example here of a three years old child, playing with a puzzle on the floor , in some cases he puts one peace of the puzzle in the wrong place, when you ask him if he thinks it’s in the right place, he will try to justify his position and correct the game.

    The child usually responds to the question after the following:

Acting, problem emergence, trial & error, then he uses  his thinking to solve the problem or what we identify reflective thinking then the learner feels relaxed.

    These five stages are very important in promoting critical thinking skills to be habits in child’s acts; behavior & conduct according to Dewy identification to reflective thinking.

      Another example would be to ask your pupil what 2 +4 is, he answers 5, he will write down the figure 5 without hesitation, but when you ask him if his answer is right or wrong, he will go back to the answer and double check, then would write the correct answer 6. This is what we call reflective thinking as the first step to reconstruct & build up critical thinking in learners mind & personality.

    But this is not the case; we need in the coming years, for the child to discover his mistakes & try to solve his problems by himself, without any intervention from anyone even from parent’s teacher or mats….etc. We as teachers can use such methods in solving pupil’s problems in mathematics, language reading & writing …etc

    We can use the same method throughout the pupil’s educational growth through to his higher education.

Conclusion

    The question here is how we, as teachers put these elements into practice in the classroom?

    The key to seeking the significance of critical thinking in the classroom understands the significance of critical thinking in learning. There are two aspects to the learning of this content, the first comprises of the learner constructing the basic ideas, principles and theories that are inherent in content for the first time.

    The second occurs when the learners effectively use those ideas, principles, and theories as they become relevant in the learners life, this would be referred to as habits.

The Reflective thinking of Dewey, The Critical rationalism of Popper and the Problem solving of Holmes are scientific approaches for teaching and learning, especially in the field of research and facts discovery and investigation. Knowledge for the three thinkers is not absolute, and is not logic.

According to Popper, knowledge is not absolute and it may be falsified. Things and concepts such as values , traditions ,facts ..exc., might be understood in one way in a cretin society but it have a different perspective in another . Natural, social, cultural and political phenomenon could be handled in different ways according to their situation , visibility, circumstances ,understanding and general system.

 In Dewey’s thought there are three kinds of experiences, educative,

non educative and diseducative . For Experience to be educative a process of reflective thinking is required . according to Holmes deductive theory rather than inductive thinking has to be endorsed to establish a new vision in educational methodology 

Hence, the researcher can utilize and use a problem solving approach rather than description and historical in a liberal or in a pragmatic method which have been clarified in Dewey’s. Popper’s, Holmes’ work.

References

 1)Carr,Wilfred (2006) Philosophy of Education)Routledge,113(UK.USA,&  Canada                              

2)Dewey, J.(1979) How we Think) General Publishing  Comp. Ltd   145(Toronto, Ontario)

3)Dewey, J.(2007) The Encyclopaedia of Philosophy , an introduction 1. Available at       www.iep.utm.edu/d/dewey.htm.

4) Edward.M.Glasser. (1941) An Experimental in the Development of Critical thinking. Teachers College Columbus University.

5) Fisher.Alec and Scriven Michael. Critical thinking: Its definition and Assessment centre for research in Critical Thinking. Fig expresses (US).

6)Gezi , K.I. (1971) Education In Comparative And International Perspective

Holt Reinhart and Winston 15-16.   (New- York)

7)- Habermas , J. (1971)K knowledge and Human Interests, Heineman, London

8) Holmes, Brian.(1965) Problem in Education.  A comparative Approach

Routledge  and  Kegan Paul 31.   (London) 

9) Holmes, Brian and Edwards, R.et al,(1973) Relevant Methods In Comparative 

Education, General Introduction (UNESCO) Inst. For Educ .) Hamburg 51-52,

10) Hakes. Belinda (2008) when critical thinking met English Literature. Cromwell press Ltd. Tonbridge, Wiltshire pie

11)Johnson, L. and Watson, P.C. (1979). Thinking Readings In Cognitive Science Cambridge University Press 258. (London)

12) Jack obi, Klaus (2004) Abelard on philosophy of language. Cambridge university press. P126-157

13)Lawton Denis, (1986) Curriculum Studies And Educational Planning.  Hodder and Stoughton

Educational UK. P.145

14)Moon A .Jennifer,( 2007) Reflection in Learning & Professional Development .Rutledge             

Falmer  New York . P. 153

15) Popper, K.R. (1966) Open Society And Its Enemies (Vol.1) Princeton

University . Press Books 59-73.Boston (USA)

16) Popper, K.R (2207) Popper’s Philosophy  , The Philosophy Of Science,

17) Wilkes. Ian. The logic of Abelard’s dialectical. Doctorial dissertation in philosophy. The University of Toronto.

18) Summer. William. A study of the sociological importance of usages,   manners, custom, mores and morels. New York. Gin and co p366

19) Sara Kaufman. (1998) Socrates, fictions of a philosopher. ISBN.

29) Skilbeck , M.(1970) John Dewey Collier Macmillan,26-27  (London)

Internet:

Encyclopaedia Of Science. Available at www. .eeng .dcu.ie/~tkpw/

Teacher’s Roles in counselling and reforming the

Academic Delay in pupils of the essential stage

In the Primary School

Dr. Zakariya Abu –Dabat 

Associate Professor

Al-Zaytoonah University

Amman -Jordan

Amman- Jordan

Marj-Alhamam

P.O Box920

Postal Code 11732

Tel. 00962-799265215     

Teacher’s Roles in counselling and reforming the

Academic Delay in pupils of the essential stage

In the Primary School

Abstract:

This study is aimed at identifying the role of the teacher in counselling the academic delay among pupils of the essential stage of the primary school in West Amman. It is aimed at showing the effect of the variable, gender and years of experience in reforming the academic delay in the light of the study fields asserted in the content of this paper.

The subject of the study consists of 53 teachers from different schools, twenty five female teachers and twenty eight male teachers in the academic years 2012 – 2013. To achieve the objectives of the study, questionnaire has been prepared and developed which contain (22) paragraphs that are divided in the fields, the first of which is the teacher’s ability to conduct counselling for ‘the academic delay’. The other is the teacher’s ability to deal with the reforming of the academic delay. The capability and the stability of the tool have been examined by using the C.O formula (0. 77).  To answer the question of the study, the Arithmetic means the standard deviation (T) test, and the analysis of single differentiation were used.

The researcher has found the means of paragraphs in the first and second fields were nearly equal, the highest arithmetic means for both (3. 32).

There were no statistical differences between the means of the answer of both male and female teachers concerning their attitudes and valuation of their role in counselling the academic Delay pupil. Finally, there are no statistical differences between the teachers’ response towards their attitudes and their capacities in counselling the academic delay pupils in the level (0.05).

Key words: Academic Delay, Educational Counceling, Reforming, Essential stage, Educational Process, Educational Strategy 

Introduction:

The school is considered to be the second social establishment after the family, in the principle if its effects on the child.  It prepares him for his future life by discovering his abilities and offering a him scientific, educational program to evolve those abilities and, provides for the individual self and social security, as it was capable of understanding the condition of scientific technology evolution and educational innovations. It offers knowledge, the modern scientific method, as well as being capable of evolving the sociable level to the point that made it the central to the social and psychology radiator. (Al-Hayani 1989).

 The institution tries to make the natural growth of students ‘linguistically, mentally, emotional, social, physical and Gnostic aspects easier, but they are facing a variety of difficulties in school experience inequality when it comes to their abilities to accomplish a sound adoption.

Hence, the concern in Educational Counselling in schools was introduced to help the individual make his educational plans that would best suit his abilities and purposeful preferences, to choose the kind of study, curricula and subjects that will help him explore his educational capabilities and aid the success in his own educational program. In addition to this, diagnosing and solving educational problems, and with these problems, the Academic Delay occurs. (Zahran 1988).

Academic Delay is considered to be one of the most important problems which create a hiatus to the progress within contemporary schooling. It is considered one of the Educational and cultural setback in ones learning. It is a problem that threats the learning within society and dispels a lot of its material and wealth to intelligence.  It also delays progress, especially in a time when the region needs the efforts and energy to acquire modern life’s demands.

It is worth mentioning that the size of this problem remained relatively high for several years.  This was confirmed by Cleugh (1961) stating that the teacher is the mail problem.  A survey was conducted in 1949 but the national Association for Mental Health and the Central Council in USA; found out that 11% of private school students have Academic delays.  Also, the studies and research in the USA pointed out that the rate of those who are academically delayed was of a total of 20% of students in various stages of education.

 To reduce the intensity of the problem, extensions services came to those who are academically delayed and offered them services, such as: diagnosis, protection, and treatment, early identification of the Academic Delay, finding out causes, trying to amend the case and using the convenient methods of teaching in order to improve the level of academic achievement.  It also comprises of other services, such as: putting some cases in special classes to reinforce and take special care of students, counselling parents about avoiding the reason behind Academy Delay and urge them to co-operate with the school to find a solution for it (Zahran 1989) . These services are listed within the Counsellor’s duties during Elementary to find a solution for Academic Delay.

Academic delay has been associated with the misconception of, “Mental Retardation”, or “stupidity”.  We might find some teachers who would easily judge an Academic delayed child to have Mental inabilities, as they are perceived to be incapable of comprehending due to slow thinking, or low grades in certain subjects by comparing with normal fellow classmates, even though, the deference between Academic Delay is the delay of achievement in comparison with the average of others , and this is considered to be a temporary disability, and has its roots, social, psychological, academic and health reasons, while mental inabilities is considered to be a flaw in the Nerve system at the years of an early life (Hasan 1990).

Some educators identified academic delays as the achievement of a certain pupils is less than the average of his schoolmates (Bashonos BA. Gawad, 1980), whilst others identified delay as a significant weakness in the pupils study, compared to schoolmates of the same age, (Qadi, 1981)

 Zahran refers to Academic Delay before the age of 15 years old to social emotional variables. (Zahran , 1985).

Teachers Roles in counselling and reforming academic delay pupil:

The teacher is required to prepare lessons, complete set tasks and cooperate with certain given circumstances of both the pupils and staff(Maniel&Reynolds2007 P77) . Educational process is considered to contain several misconceptions, one of which suggests that the teacher should interact with the student and parents, in order to evaluate the student’s performance. The second misconception includes the ‘group work’, where the teacher should meet such a group and co-operate with them. H. Tuba and her colleague R. Tyler (1973) refer to the importance of focusing on teaching strategies that guarantee the terms and conditions of the circumstances of both teaching and treatment. These terms should be considered during the setting of certain teaching strategies, this is achieved by evaluating students work and teacher’s strategy of Academic delay treatment (Stones & Morris 1979 p.179).  Some education specialists examined the idea of comparing between teaching and treatment. They concluded that each function had its own role; treatment for instance, according to those specialists is the final step of the academic process which originated with the process of studying the case, then later to teach and then ending in evaluating the whole process. On the other hand, teaching strategies and treatment are factors are reconsidered different in there aspects but coordinate functionally. Their goal is to improve the educational system within all aspects (Khatib, I.& Amal,I. 2003. p39)

The Role of Administration in counselling and reforming academic delayed pupils:

It has therefore been established that monitoring a period of treatment is an essential method of the teaching process. The role of the teacher is to firstly produce several teaching techniques to accommodate various levels of competence. Continuous efforts are provided in revising and assessing the teaching strategies that take place. It can therefore be argued that the educational process as a whole plays a significant role above the pupils’ achievements, as the teacher’s role entails a significant amount of duties. There are three aspects which can be examined for the teachers delay treatment, firstly the role of the teacher on duty and secondly the role of the teacher in the school administration and the teachers personal potentials. Therefore the role of the school administration must accommodate to the variations of skills available by the teacher. The school head master in particular, is an individual who identifies the potentials of the teachers in his school. He can also encourage the students to excel in their creative skills, and provide them with a unique learning experience. According to “the character theory” expressed by (Williamson and Peterson 1965), it is explained that “personality” has a significant role in forming educational achievements. According to this notion, it is suggested that educational strategies and academic delay shapes and forms the student’s personality, attitudes and progress in education. It is further suggested that the common element between the development of the personality and treatment is the ‘integrative and connective human relationship’ (Williamson and Patterson 1965). Educational processes in the school and in the class room coincide with academic delay are considered to be an innate process, which aims to exhibit the human character in order for the teacher to grasp the true nature of the individual. This is a certain strategy that improves the educational process in terms of the ‘general codes of education’ ( Oqaili,S. & others .2001) . As for Dv.Tyson, he produced a correlation between teaching and administration, as it is claimed that both fields require a set of motivated goals within each stage of production. On the other hand (Tesone 2005 p.7), Tesones main concern was concerned with teaching and enforcing administrative roles and academic delay treatment.(Thomas Sergiovanni and Rober Starrat (2002,p4) differentiated between the teachers role and the teachers function, it was assumed that the role in education before teaching was to cooperate with educational administration and set  a comprehensive strategy for teaching processes and concern for special needs treatment, which would guarantee educational goals and objectives to be achieved for the student. But as for such a strategy the co –operation should include parents and medical specialists if required, in order to improve the teacher’s proficiency. This is specifically done by taking notes and observing the strategies within the classroom from an ethnographic perspective.  (Sergiovanni & Starrat 2002)

Study Terminology

Academic Delay:

Some teachers and Psychologists disagree on the concept of Academic Delay, according to Petrie (1975) it is mentioned that there is no precise meaning for Academic Delay, although he could agree that Academic Delay refers to a child that doesn’t perform or work on a level that allows him to fulfil his maximum potential and reach a level equal to his classmates. As Abd Al-Mounem  expresses (Hasan 1990), there is no general agreement between Pedagogues and Psychologists on the concept of Retardation or Academic Delay,   as a result of the vague use of the term ‘academic delay’; slow learners are quite difficult to define. Some people associate it with the ability of scoring high grades, memorizing, remembering and a lot more of mental functions which are related to educational attainments.

Some educators and psychologist have used the term ‘backwardness’ instead of delay. The first proponent figure used such term (Burt, 1975), expresses that backwardness is a name given to all those who cannot do the assignment asked from them in class during mind-year. He refers to it as ‘under achievement.’ In the English language, the term ‘academic delay’ is defined as a ‘slow learner’ (oxford dictionary, 2003).

Educational Process:

This definition comprises of the sum of facts, notions, application of knowledge and certain aspects a student must achieve within his academic study (Lewis & Norwish, 2005 p133).

Educational strategies:

Teaching strategies are plans a teacher constructs before they begin lessons, they include all elements of the curriculum such as: inputs, procedures, outputs, feedback, and certain techniques in order to achieve classroom goals (Moon, 2007 p97).

 The performance of students is an aspect that is produced as a result of teaching strategies. It is prevailed by the progress presented by the pupils in the classroom, as well as outside the classroom mainly concerning their extra curricular activities and personal flair. (Stones and Morris 1997, P96)

Educational counceling:

The effort paid by the educational counsellor to organise and direct the development of the trainee teachers, individually counselling as well as within groups, in order to grasp a better understanding of teaching more efficiently. This is so they are able to monitor the progression of each student, as well as building a democracy (fairness) within the community at school. (Al-Ibrahim, 2002, p13-14).A certain notion by Tafish ,M. (no date) suggests that educational counselling is an ‘art’, a cooperative process whereby educational specialist aims to improve both the teaching and learning within an institution. This is achieved in an ethnographical way, the counsellor would observe the processes within the classroom, and analyse. This is also achieved by providing guidance in order to improve their performance in the classroom. In addition, to enhance the improvement on their abilities to participate and socialise by providing them with necessary knowledge, values and habits (Tafesh, M.p70).

Certain educational specialists believe that counselling is a process, by which the individual receives guidance that would enable them to establish a role within their community/society.  It is also a process where the teacher can develop new skills, and build up their character within the work force. (Abu Ghazala ,H. p3).

Briggs in particular, indicates that counselling has a significant impact on the roles students may have in society. It is also argued that it is an ongoing effort to encourage and direct the self growth of teachers to become more productive in achieving educational goals (Al-Ibrahim,A. 2002 p14)

Essential Stage:

This is defined as the first three years of the primary school, a according to Jordanian educational system

Reforming:

Repairing the case, and handling the problem in a practical way and operational process, in other wards, reforming is to create change in order for improvement. (oxford dictionary 2003).

The problem and the importance of the study:

There are a number of pupils suffering from Academic Delay in a large number of subjects, but do not receive enough attention from their teachers and school administration or parents.

Therefore, these pupils are unable to fulfil their maximum potential in understanding what affects their working lives and their future.

For those reasons, and other negative side effects, it is important and necessary to deal with their problems, and construct strategies in order to improve them. Moreover, it is of significant to improve their inability to keep up with their colleagues in the study.

The questions to be answered:

1      What are the duties of the teacher of the essential stage of the primary school to counsel the Academic Delayed pupils from the teacher’s point of view?

2      What are the duties of the teacher of the essential stage of the primary school to reform the Academic Delayed pupils from the teacher’s point of view?

3      Are there any significant differences at the level of (0.05) between the teacher’s roles in counselling and reforming of Academic Delay according to gender?

4      Are there any significant differences at the level of (0.05) between the teacher’s role in counselling and reforming of Academic Delay according to teacher’s experience in teaching?

Postulates of the study:

From these questions, the researcher extrapolated the following assumptions:

1-The teacher in the essential stage of the primary school does not counsel the academic delayed pupils.

2- The teacher in the essential stage of the primary school does not treat and reform the academic delayed pupils.

3-There are no significant differences between the performances of the teachers related to the previous duties according to their gender.

4-There are no significant differences between the performances of the teachers related to the previous duties according to their experiences.

Previous studies:

 A study conducted by Abu –Alhaiga (1988) to evaluate the reform of school teachers and educational counsellors in Jordan concerning their roles in the treatment of academic delay. The study shows a lack of experience in this field, an inability to exhibit certain teaching strategies, and an inability to construct process required to deal with the problem.

Aqra (1992) studied the relationship between the expectation of the teachers, administrators and the counsellors based on the students’ problems in learning and their duties towards such problems. The study exhibited statistical significant differences between the tow variables according to their experience in the field. In addition, the study also shows that there were no statistical significant differences between the expectation and the duties due to gender.

A study carried out by David and Freihat(1996) was aimed at investigating the relationship between the communication skills of the teachers , administrators and the counsellors based on their efficiency in dealing with the students educational problems. A conclusion was made that there is a statistical significant correlation between the skills of communication and the effectiveness in providing extension services to the student’s educational problems in the school.

 The researcher has conducted a study based on the students’ standards in practical teaching in Saudi Arabia. The study asserted the influence of theoretical studies on student’s practical performance inside the classroom (Abu- Dabat, Z, 1982).

However according to Zuhdi,M.(1993) it is said that expectations of essential primary school teachers from educational supervisors . The researcher found out that the expectations were higher than the supervisor’s performance.

Shawkat ,M.(1978) followed up the development of supervision sector in the educational field in Jordan, however Adnan ,M. &Yosof,M.(1971) managed succeeded to analyze schools teachers in Jordan , the results were positive, as opposed to the previous proposed studies.  As for the research conducted, many scholars have produced regional and national conferences, one in particular was carried out by Abed Al Rahim Quasmih in the ‘Educational counselling’ conference held in Irbid 1986.

The main concern was the reality of counselling in Jordan, covering both negative and positive aspects. Mohammad Dwaik had also contributed to the conference with opinions on counselling. However Khaled Al Omari organised a conference held by the ‘ministry of education in Amman, 1979, concerning the connection between counsellors and teachers. This specific talk was closely related to the issues discusses between teacher and counsellor relationships. On the other hand, a study produced by Abdullah Baha Al-Deen and Sihab Sayed form the University of Baghdad, emphasises the positive statistical relationship between the educational choices of students in a certain area of subjects.

In the United States for instance, there is considered to be no connection between counselling and productivity (of both students and teachers). Specialists stress on the direct relationship between the variables, as each one affects each other in periodical and comprehensive ways. Counselling is based on the suggestions made by Tomas Sergiovanni and Robart Starrat, (2002. P266-267). These scholars carried out practical studies on a group of students; they established strong relationships with statistical indications between practical and scientific applications, in terms of the data collected for counselling, cooperation with counsellors and tendency to teaching. Both specialists ensured the two counsellors from the study sample formed a connection with the teachers, the two specialists then concluded that the outcome of the study was positive, and in terms of the progress made by the students and the information provided to teachers. This study demonstrates a positive outcome towards the productivity and success of counselling.

Concerning the academic delay, there are many studies which have been conducted. The study carried out by (Harden, 1987) to effectively teach students suffering from the problem of underachievement in general, but particularly those with literacy inabilities.

Forest (1989) conducted a study based on the problems of social relations and isolation shown in those who have ‘slow learning’. The study aimed to present ways in which the social relationship of students would successfully alter from family members to their local communities.

The results of this study had thus shown, that the students practical      application of professional skills in which they have learned, aided this application. The ability to understand lessons in school, were a result of the students interacting with members of the community. The successful social relationships as a result, presented more of an understanding academically.

Hasan Al Manse conducted a study aiming to diagnose the aptitude of students from grade 7-9. The data was collected at the UNRWA schools of Irbid. Students from varying backgrounds were selected. The results had ultimately shown that the 7-8 graders had a weaker aptitude than the 9^th graders in terms of learning. These problems with the 7-8 graders inabilities to learn stem from the psychological responses to education, family, relationships with the institution and certain social factors.

Methodology of the study:

The subject of the study consists of 53 teachers from different schools, twenty five female teachers and twenty eight male teachers in the academic years 2012–2013.

The study was conducted based on a quantitative and qualitative research methods. A questionnaire was firstly created in order to assess the teacher’s role on assessing pupil academic delays. A questionnaire was created in its preliminary form, where the number of paragraphs totaled 22 and distributed to two purviews to the role of the teacher.

1. The purview of Diagnosis the school delaying and it contain (9) paragraphs.
2. The purview of treating school delaying and it contained (13) paragraph.

Likert Pentagram standard was used to measure the role of the teacher on treating academic delay in general, the result was: predominantly (5) degrees, occasionally (4) degrees, Sometimes (3) degrees, rarely have (2) degrees and Never has (1) degree, so the range was therefore between (1-5) degree for each paragraph.

To measure the credibility of this questionnaire, it was displayed on an arbitrator’s panel from the department of Educational Sciences at Al-zaytoonah private university; and certain specialists in educational psychology, in order for evaluation. The number of members of the committee was 5 people. The Committee was required to express their opinion about affiliation of the paragraph to the purview, as well as the clarity of paragraphs and the language. After considering the members of the committee views, some paragraphs were edited, however none of the questionnaire paragraphs were eradicated. The committee displayed the questionnaire after its final edit, as it was the presented to the members of the study sample. They ensured the stability of the questionnaire data from the study sample, and by using technology and statistical packages of Social Sciences, the reliability coefficient was (0.72), a result which displayed a reliability in the study’s methodology.

The independent and dependent variables had been selected. The first of which are, the teacher’s gender and experience, from 1-5 years,6-10 years and over. The second variables consist of; the teacher’s counseling and reforming of   academic delayed pupil.

An arithmetic average, standard deviation and Dawning grades as statistical methods were then used, in order to answer the first question. A (T) test had then been conducted to answer the second and third questions, and finally the single variation analysis (ANOVA) been conducted in order to answer the fourth question.

The study results and its discussion

The main aim of this study was to define the teacher’s role on counseling and reforming the academic delay. Moreover, the purpose was to detect the statistical differences according to gender and teacher’s experience in academia.
The results have been classified according to the study questionnaire as follows:

Results related to the first and second questions:

1) What are the duties of the teacher to counsel the Academic Delayed pupil from the teacher’s point of view?

2) What are the duties of the teacher to reform the Academic Delayed pupil from the teacher’s point of view?

An Arithmetic mean and standard deviation has been used.

 The Phrases have been organized according to the ranks of the teachers’ response.

                      Table number (1) shows the results.

A.M Arithmetic Mean

S.D Standard Deviation

Table number (1) displays that the arithmetic averages are greater than the arithmetic mean (3.4) for all the teacher’s roles on counseling and reforming academic delay for pupils in the essential primary school. However two roles are exempt, these are, isolated and delayed pupils in special needs classes, and the arrangements of recreational trips for them to change their psychological situation. These two variables on treating the mathematical averages receive less than (3).Showing that the teachers do most of their jobs in the previous two variables.

The table also shows that most of the teachers displayed good relations with the pupils who had academic delay. They had cooperated with their fellow teachers to in order to devise a plan to assist those who are experiencing academic delay. This was achieved by, treating delayed pupils, trying to change the negative attitudes for them, persuade the delayed pupils that they have meaningful value, assist the pupils in organizing their time, study the psychological problems that may occur and help them to avoid embarrassment. In addition to this, the teacher must request more information from college teachers about the belated pupils, and train them how to use a beneficial and effective form of study. As a result, monitoring the cases of academic delay in deferent subjects, where those results received from (1) to (10), degrees respectively. There for the researcher refuses the first two postulates.

Concerning the third question:

Are there any significant differences at the level of (0.05) between the teacher’s roles in counselling and reforming of Academic delay according to gender?

The researcher has used (T) Test to answer this question, table No.2 shows the results.

A.M Arithmetic Means.  F.D   Freedom Degrees. S. Error

S.S Statistical Significance < than0.05

From the previous scale the results shows no S.S in the scopes of the two variables ,counseling the academic delayed pupils and reforming their situation, because the T. test result was 1.85 which is not statistically significant in the level 0.31 and F.D 38 which means that both male teachers and female teachers are aware about the previous variables in different stages .Accordingly the researcher accept zero assumption which reads, there are no significant differences between the performances of the teachers related to the previous duties according to their gender.

Concerning the fourth question:

Are there any significant differences at the level of (0.05) between the teacher’s role in counselling and reforming of Academic delay according to teacher’s experience in teaching?.To answer this question, the researcher has used (F) Test which has been extrapolated from the analysis of variance ANOVA.

 Table No (3) shows the result.

The above scale shows no statistical significances in the level of (0.05) between the teacher’s role in counseling and reforming of Academic delayed pupils according to teacher’s experience in teaching. which means that all teachers are aware of the previous variables in different stages .Accordingly the researcher accept zero assumption which reads, there are no significant differences between the performance of the teachers related to the previous duties according to their experience in teaching.

Discussion of the results:

The study has shown the following results:

1-The most important aspect had evoked teachers’ response was the good relationship between them and the pupils whom are suffering from academic delay.

2- Cooperation between teacher and his colleagues in the school especially the head master for counseling and reforming the problem.

3-Refering to the pupil’s psychological, social and academic results in order to counsel him and reform his problem in learning.

4-The teacher tries to change pupil’s trends in learning habits, and convincing the academic delayed pupil that he is a valuable and useful person, accordingly he should concentrate on his study and home work.

5- The teacher tries to train the pupil who suffers from academic delay to a new pattern of behavior such as avoiding shame, mixing with the hardworking school mates…..etc

6-There are no significant differences between the performances of the teachers related to the previous duties according to their experience in teaching and gender.

7- Such results have agreed with the study operated by Forahet 1996 

And disagreed with the studies conducted by others (Al-Aqra and Manci1992).

Recommendations:

1-    The teacher should deal with the pupil who suffers from academic delay in deferent ways in respect of curriculum, teaching methods, counseling and reforming.

2-    The relationship between the teacher and the pupil who suffers from academic delay should be stronger than that with other pupils in the class room in order to acknowledge his problems to handle and reform them in a scientific way.

3-    The need for cooperation between those who are interested in educational process inside and outside the school to detect the academic delayed pupils to work together in order to solve such problem.

4-    The need for a closer link with parents to discover and detect academic delayed pupils very early to ease the solution for the problem and not worsen it.

5-    The need for further research on academic delays in different subjects and use the useful strategies to deal with the problem.

References

1-Abu-Dabat,Z. Evaluating Teaching Skills Of Trainee   Students At Faculty Of Education. King Abdul-Azeez University (1992). Scientific Magazine for science & Culture. Tunisia. (Arabic Text )

2-Abdul- Rahman ,T. Academic Delays’ Psychology.(1980) Dar Al-Thakafeh.Cairo.(Arabic Text)

3- Abu-Gazaleh, D. Supervision Guide Book, No Date, (Arabic Text)

4- Al-Asawi, A.The prpblem of childhood and adolescence.(1993) Dar Aloloom Alarabiya, Bairut (Arabic Text)

5- Al-Fikki,H. Academic Delay. Diagnoses and Treatment (1975) Ali-Al-Sabah institution, Kuwat . (Arabic Text)

6-Al-Hayati,A. Educational and Psychological Counseling. (1989) Dar-Alkotob, Mosel,Iraq.(Arabic Texe)

7- Al-Ibraheem,A.B. Educational .Supervision, Patterns & Methods , (2002) Hamada Establishment, Irbed . First Ed. (Arabic Text)

8- Al-kateeb, I.Y. & Amal ,I. Educational Supervision, Methods & Applicable. (2003) . Kandeel Publishers, Amman –Jordan .(Arabic Text)

9- Al-Oqaily ,S. & Others ,  Supervision Evolution & Development .   (2002) .King Saud University, Faculty Of Education (Arabic Text )

10-AL-Qadi,Y.Psychological Counseling and Educational

  supervision,(1981)Dar Al-Mareekh,Al-Riyadh,S.A.(Arabic Text)

11- Al- Rifae,N. Psychological Health ,A study in Psychological Adjustment.(1963) Damascus University Press ,Seventh Ed. (Arabic Text)

12-Al-Sajee , M. Containing  Educational Supervision , (1999) An Article in Al-Rai News paper ,Amman Jordan ( Arabic Text )

13-Bashmosh,S.&Others,PrimaryEducation,(1980)Al-Riyadh Press,(Arabic Text)

14-Ann Lewis & Braham Norwich. Special Teaching fore Special Children. (2006) Open University Press, London

15-Certo, S.C. Supervision, Concepts & Skills Building, (2003). McGraw-Hill Irwin. New York.

             16-Daniel Muijs & David Reynolds. (2007) Effective Teaching, Evidence & Practice. Sage Publications ltd. Third ed.London.

             17-Damanhoory,R. Socialization and Academic Delay.(1995) Dar-Maarif Al-Jameeya,Alexandria, (Arabic Text)

             18-Fether Stone,B.The Slow Learning.(1963) Translated into Arabic by Fahmi,M. Dar Al-Nahda, Cairo

             19-Jenever,A. Moon. Reflection in Learning & Professional Development. Theory & Practce (2007).Rutledge falmer. Third, ed. London

             20-Manci,H.(1992)The problems of slow learning pupils, Master Research,Fuculty of educational sciences, Al-Yarmouk University, Jordan

             21- Patterson, C.H. (1973). Theories of Counseling & Psychotherapy. N.Y. Harper & Row   

             22-Oxford Dictionary,(2003) Oxford University Press.

             23-  Sergiovanni, T.J., & Starrat, R.J. (2002). Supervision, a Definition,   McGraw-Hill, New York, 7^th edition.

      24-Stones, E., & Morris, S. (1976). Teaching Practice, Problems and Perspectives, Fletcher and Son Ltd. Norwich.  

       25-Tafesh,M.Creativity in Educational Supervision &                Administration,(No Date) Dar Al-Forkan ,Irbed, Jordan

    26-Tesone, D.V. (2005). Supervision Skills for the Service Industry.      Person, Prentic Hall, New Jersy.

     27-Williamson, (1965). Vocational Counseling. New York,      McGraw-Hill.

     28- Zahran,H. Psychological Growth (1985) Alam Al-Kotob,Fifth Ed. Cairo (Arabic Text)

     29- Zahran, H. Psychological Counseling and Guiding, (1988) Alam Al-Kotob, Cairo (Arabic Text)

Implementing Hidden Curriculum elements in the lower essential grades of primary schools throughout Jordan

Dr. Zakariya Abu-Dabat

Al-Zaytoonah University

Associate Professor

Amman-Jordan

2011-1012

    zakariyadabaat@hotmail.co.uk

Marj El Hamam

P.O Box 920

11732

Amman

Jordan

Mobile:         00962 799 265 215

Tel, Home:   00962 657 278 42

Abstract 

This thesis aims at examining the extent to which teachers of the primary essential stage obtain awareness and enact the main elements of the hidden curriculum; a notion which had been identified and laid down by Philip Hosford, one of the most prominent figures in the field. The results illustrated that both sets of teachers male and female are highly aware of these distinctive elements. However elements of timing came in the end of the category, whilst the element of problem solving came on top of teacher awareness. The study had shown that there were statistical significant differences between male and female teachers, particularly in terms of priority of each examined proceeding element. The female teachers were specifically interested in organizing the classroom and monitoring the acts of pupils, male teachers on the other hand were interested in the expectations  (student potential and results), and encouraged pupils to use scientific forms of thinking. There were no significant differences between teachers in the government and private schools in regards to these pedagogical elements.

Key words: Hidden Curriculum, Essential Grade, Implementation, Curriculum Elements, In-Put, Procedures, Out-Put, Evaluation &Feed back.

Implementing hidden curriculum elements in the lower essential grades of primary schools through out Jordan

Introduction

The elementary stage is of significance in the educational system, especially in the lower stage. For this reason educators had focused solely in dedicating studies towards this stage that extends from the age of six to eight according to the educational system in Jordan. .

It is a fundamental stage in life where the child’s behavior and character is formed; indicating the features of a child’s future. This was stressed by John Dewey, jean Piaget and Sigmund Freud amongst other scholars and Psychologists. They concentrated on studying the individualism of the individual as an active member within society. They were also concerned with studying the childhood and its impact on forming the child’s character. This raised attention to study the early psychological health and sentimental growth and the effect on the individual’s psychological health and social adaptation (Abu-Dabat, 2007).

Students in the lower elementary stage (the first, second and third grade of elementary school, according to the educational system in Jordan) come to school prepared with a certain amount of vocabulary, behavioral patterns obtained by the family and the outside society. The school polishes and arranges those behaviors in addition to the learned material and works on fulfilling the child’s needs and requirements at this stage.

The process of learning through schools and training helps the child to acquire behavior patterns that are different to those that the child adopts before joining a school, either in a direct or an indirect way.

It is firstly acquired through the child being in direct contact with the educational material and the second is acquired through learning passively. This has a large effect in making the child acquire a group of positive and negative tendencies. (Dewey.J.1961)

Hilda Taba named this kind of experience an ‘Intangible Experience’ and has defined it as ‘mental experiences’ that are connected with thinking methods in terms of organization and performance when the learner goes through pleasant or unpleasant experiences. (Abu-Dabat. Z 1984). Despite the effects of the experiences on the student’s growth, there are sources other than the intended and pre-arranged curriculum that have a particular effect in obtaining different experiences, knowledge, facts, information, generalizations and skills. In addition they have an effect on building their characters and thinking methods. These sources are called silent curriculum or hidden curriculum.

Hidden Curriculum or Silent Curriculum

The term ‘Silent Curriculum’ or ‘Hidden Curriculum’ was raised by John Dewey who used the term ‘Collateral Learning’ to point at a group of tendencies which students obtain during their practical life (Portelli,1993).

Jackson considered that the hidden curriculum has a cognitive and behavioral effect that students obtain and build outside what is really arranged, i.e outside the framework of the clear and known curriculum (Jackson, 1968).

Others see that this kind of curriculum is enhanced through a set of hypotheses formed by students, and some of them see that the hidden curriculum is more important than the arranged curriculum, because teachers do not pay attention to it as they focus on their teaching and its content.

It also has the biggest impact on shaping the lives and characters over the long term (Jackson, 2004).

Others see that the silent curriculum has a group of hidden messages that students receive unintentionally, but these messages are below the level of the intended curriculum. (Ryan,1993).

Whatever these definitions are, the fields of the silent curriculum are widely open. They express basic urgent needs to accomplish the demands of the individual’s growth, not only in the elementary stages of learning, but this kind of curriculum leaves its traces and effects clearly on students’ tendencies and values that they obtain and practice in their practical life. As a matter of fact, many educators see that the silent curriculum is acquired in our lives and forms our basic needs.  It was therefore vital for the educators to fulfill these teachings; by encouraging their students to find the right tools, in order to achieve their goals and become culturally immersed within their society. (Fallows, 1996).

Problem of the study

The problem of the study lies in the fact that many teachers are not aware of the significance in the silent curriculum within the educational process. It is also important that they present organizational skills and planning, as it has been established that they do not prepare in terms of performance before teaching.

Other factors that will affect the students’ performance, behavior and ability to obtain a large group of values, habits and tendencies is the teachers character and the way of dealing with his or her students to achieve the process of learning ( an important part of the silent curriculum.

While following up on our students in university during teaching practice, it has been empirically observed that the majority of the teachers lacked in a substantial preparation for the lessons to commence. They did not define goals (objectives) and lacked in the concept of a dependable plan. Some teachers leave the class without control during the lessons.

In respect to the observations of these pedagogical techniques and the examination of such intangible processes in relation to these teacher’s lessons; the behavior and skills presented by teachers inside the classroom is of great significance to the educational system in terms of its assessments. It provides a motivation to improve the standards of teaching, and the learning process on behalf of the student’s in particular. It ultimately provides new goals and aims within the educational system, thus encouraging a more efficient learning for future generations.

A metaphorical tool presented by Steivcks indicating the process of teaching and learning states that: teaching and learning is like two men trying to cut down and tree and a saw with handles at both ends. If one man stops pulling, there will be no progress. This shows that teaching is a process of ‘give and take’ within the hidden curriculum.

Importance of the Study

This study held a prominent place in the United States, Britain and many other advanced countries, because of it’s importance in the formation of the student’s personality from childhood and what the teacher’s planning methods contain.

The teacher must also leave the students with certified knowledge in their subjects and help in their development. This can be achieved according to the following:

1)    The teacher’s plan and organization of the class as (Ritchard.J.1986) confirmed.

2)    The student is granted full independence to express himself and his trends towards his teacher and educational material. These aspects play a major role in the learning process, and help him to gain experience in education.

3)    If the teacher didn’t notify his students that he is already going to teach them and they didn’t feel able to express themselves, they lose a great deal of motivation. (Rivers, 1983).

Tools of the study

The researcher used a special questionnaire which represented all elements of Philip

Hosford’s category to measure the passive approach before and during the teaching process. Hosford talked about group ranging from the basic elements under each element of T.E.M.P.O. system.

Hosford presented an important query: how can we define the elements of a hidden curriculum to the teacher? It is vital to the research process to put forward an integrated system in identifying the capacity of the teacher’s pedagogical abilities, presenting the extent of their influence of interaction between these elements to be considered: the teacher, material learned and the students. Accordingly we can identify and predict the positive educational outcomes desired. Hosford named this system (T.E.M.P.O).

T- Time on task

E- Expectation

M- Monitoring

P- Problem solving

O- Organization

Hosford has identified five categories for each section of T.E.M.P.O system.

To measure the reliability of the system and category, the researcher adopted the observation reliability equation’.20 x 100 25=8. The desired factor agreement of stability of the form is 80% meaning that the form of T.E.M.P.O. system is reliable.

Questions and Assumptions

From these basic criterias, four questions should be answered,

1)    Do teachers at the primary educational level implement the approach according to the hidden curriculum identified by Hosford T.E.M.P.O?

2)    Are there differences between the performance of male teachers and female teachers in the implementation of the hidden curriculum?

3)    Is there a difference between the performance of teachers in government schools and the performance of teachers in private schools in the implantation of the hidden curriculum?

4)    Which of the previous elements (T.E.M.P.O) are more organized for the teachers?

From these questions, the researcher assumes:

1)  The teachers of elementary schools do not look after the grounds of organizing the educational stand, according to Hosford’s categories

2)  There is no statistical significance between teachers in applying the hidden curriculum according to Hosford’s regulations

3)  There is no statistical significance between the teachers of public schools and their peers in               private schools in applying the hidden curriculum according to Hosford.

4)  Teachers don’t take into account the elements of the hidden curriculum with the elements of the hidden curriculum with the same amount of concern.

Subject of the study

Four schools have been chosen at random, two of which were private and two were selected state schools allocated in west Amman. Twenty teachers were then selected (both male and female), they were divided by a selection of 5 teachers per institution.

This sample provides a full representation on the subject because the study relies on direct viewing and examining, (Al- Jadery, Adnan, 2007) on the other hand this operation would also consume a large amount of time and effort. (Ibrahim, 2005).

Procedures and Limitation of the study

The researcher relied on ethnographic observations during the visits to each teacher of the third grade, during the first semester of 2011 / 2012. This observation was of significance, as the third grade is considered the final stage of learning, where the child’s learning competence is identified in terms of reading, writing, as well as the ground rules of math and the start of a linguistic outburst. It is also a fundamental stage whereby the students are encouraged to develop personal qualities, and excel as individuals. On the other hand it can be argued that the third grade is just a representative sample of the elementary stage which includes first , second and third grades only.

Before each visit, the researcher informed the school teachers of the observations made. However, details of the procedure were not explained, in order to present a true and accurate nature of the teachers and their students.

The teachers were unaware that the TEMPO measurement was being used.

Previous studies

Related researches in respect to analyzing the pedagogical discourses of the teachers, as well as the competence of the students, provided several arguments in relation to this study.

This discourse includes activity elements, classroom interaction (linguistic, scientific) and explaining concepts, as well as learning strategies inside the classroom and other such studies (Keshk and Wahbah).

Both researchers used empirical observation techniques in order to collect data; an average was then recorded in order to clarify the interaction between the student and their teachers. The recordings were taken from the four core subjects (Arabic, History, Math and Science). There was also a study that clarified the positive effect of classroom discourse in teaching ‘science’ in elementary school, and how it helped the students’ understanding of scientific concepts. (Al-Hormozi, 2006)

Concerning the behavioral aspects Abdul- Rahman (1992) performed a study that showed the effect of teachers when dealing with students in respect to ‘harshness’ and ‘leniency’ and their impact in academic achievement. The study indicated that flexible teachers resulted in more interactive students.

A renowned study in regards to the hidden curriculum, is the one that handled the influence of meta-cognitive teaching strategies and practice and developing experience and activities that goes on with different mental stages (Al-Zyadat, 2003).

This type of thinking can not be taught directly. Circumstances must be set concisely to achieve this long term goal. (Hafsa. H, Taher 2011). Research had also been conducted, to assess the effect of teaching and student acquisition of knowledge in different subjects; away from school books or the conformist methods of teaching. such as the research carried out by Lubliner (2001) suggesting that acquiring the ability to understand and absorb using unconventional strategies in learning is more effective than planning ahead using conventional methods.

It was revealed that certain profound teaching methods had lead the students to acquire a diverse range of concepts and thinking methods which were identified by Fashion (1998) as self regulation in monitoring the individual and cognitive activities consciously, he had used the elements of these methods (Fashion 1998).

Another renowned study in this field (measuring the hidden curriculum) is the one carried out by (Hosford.L, 1984). In 1960 Hosford put a list of twenty educational goals that he narrowed down to four after presenting it to professional educators. He created a list to measure the skills of thirty teachers as casting members. Ten of which did not pass the exam, although they were very educated and professional in their own majors, they did not exhibit certain teaching skills in the classroom. Their social relations with the students lacked in addition, the percentage of absences for their classes were high.

When the students were reminded of these teachers, they showed a sense of resentment. The students had claimed that certain teachers presented an authoritarian tendency, and therefore had failed to achieve three out of the four goals.

These goals are:

1)    Stimulating willingness among students to learn.

2)    Failing in self development and acceptance

3)    Honoring and respecting others

Despite his linguistic interest, Galeb Gatingo focused on examining the process of teaching. He especially addressed the importance of the hidden curriculum. He considered such a curriculum as a process, then emphasized on ‘time investigating’ by teacher and students alike.

(Galeb, Gatingo 1976 , available at www.arabsgate.com)

Gatingo searched the intellectual side in organizing the hidden curriculum and established that when the teacher does not plan his / her performance and procedures, their students do not recall their previous experiences and can not reconstruct a new learning experience. Accordingly, direct learning becomes an emotional effort. Indirect learning will help students to develop experience which later on shapes their personal identities.

Previous studies based on this domain are that of the Mines and Reynolds’s study. This was under the title of creating certain guidelines for learning.

They laid down basic elements for the measurement of learning in British schools, both Primary and Secondary.

1)    Classroom Administration

2)    Behavior Administration

3)    Influence of classroom preparation on the student s achievement

4)    The general atmosphere of the classroom

The researchers conclude that each element especially classroom management (Time on Task) has the largest effect in the student’s performance, and gained many positive attitudes towards the subjects learnt or intended to be learnt.

The results had also showed a positive attitude towards the teachers and a willingness to learn. (Daniel and David 2007).

There are many researches which investigate the effect of the hidden curriculum on student performance in colleges that specialize in medicine and economics in particular. The domains of this type of curriculum are of a broad spectrum. As educators, we are interested in the effects of this curriculum on a student’s growth in education and personal qualities.

In order to answer the questions of the study, ensure the hypothesis is certified , after conducting observation process and filling the designed questionnaire, the researcher concluded the following:

1)    Do teachers in the primary stage consider and address the elements of hidden curriculum according to Hosford’s elements (T.E.M.P.O)?

To answer this question, means and standard deviations for the five dimensions of the hidden curriculum were calculated. The findings were as follows:

Table one

Means and standard deviations for the extent of primary school teachers applying the hidden curriculum elements.

Table (1) shows that the primary school teachers take care of the hidden curriculum elements, before and during the lessons. Accordingly we refuse the first hypothesis.

In order to answer the second question: Are there statistical differences between the performance between male and female teachers, with respect of applying the elements of the hidden curriculum?

An independent sample T-test was carried out and the findings were as follows:

Table Two

T-Test findings for the extent of primary school teachers for the elements for the hidden curriculum according to gender 

*      The level of statistical significance < than0.05

**     The level of statistical significance < than 0.01

The above scale shows a statistical significance within the elements of the hidden curriculum in favor of the female teachers. The statistical significance value is less than 0.05 and the arithmetic mean of females’ scores is hire than mail teachers.

The results shows no statistical significance in the scopes of: time on task, expectations& problem solving , which means that both mail teachers & female teachers are aware about the scopes & elements  of hidden curriculum.

Explanation Of The Results

From the previous results we discern the extent of interest of teachers to organize the classroom in the schools of Jordan contrary to expectations, where the results are promising for education in Jordan and promising signs that the efforts being made to bear fruit, but there are regulatory elements must be alert her from time to time and the other for will assess the work and make the educational process in order to achieve its objectives. It is noted that there was no statistically significant differences between male and female teachers in public and private schools for the organization of the educational process indicates that the public schools is keen as the private schools for the development of performance which enhances the school and continue support and competencies that are worth.

Recommendations

The Researcher recommends the following:

1)  The need for further research sheds light on the extent of the impact of the underlying            elements of the approach to the collection of scientific students and giving them the positive trends and experience nanny and other patterns of behavior different.
2)  The need to alert the teachers always by the departments of education and educational guidance to take into account the element of time and the time to teach because it is a very important element to achieve the desired educational goals, they were the results for this element is very modest.
3)  Need to focus on the element of behavioral expectations and knowledge of any so-called product of learning, which must be in priority after the use of time in teaching and not wasted.
4)  The results of the parameters for the two follow-up and organization satisfactory results of either the teachers did not like and vice versa for the racial expectations and raise the skill to solve problems and use appropriate methods to achieve this goal, so it is hoped that the focus of each party on the strengths and consolidation and to identify weaknesses and avoid them.

Bibliography

1) Adul Rahman, I. Science curriculum for middle school and the development of critical            thinking to the media,( 2007)working paper submitted to the First International Conference for Media Education, Doha, ( Arabic Text)

2) Abdul Rahman Ibrahim, teachers and the paper being too in dealing with students, (1992).Journal of Education,  Al-Najah University, No. VIII, (Arabic Text)

3) Abu-Dabat, Z.A Comparative curriculum in the primary school in Jordan, England and Wales. (1984) Theses submitted for the degree of Doctor of philosophy to the University of    London, U.K. P235

4) Daniel, M. and David, R(2007). Effective teaching, evidence and practice, Sage    publications Ltd. Second Edition.  London p.217

5)  Dewey, J. (1916) Democracy and Education. New York, Macmillan, p.23

6)  Fashion, p. (1988) Critical thinking, what it is why it count, California.

Academic Press. U.S.A. p.18

7)  Fallows, J. (1996) Breaking the News, Can the media undermines American democracy? New York, Pantheon Books .P. 269

8)  Hermazi, Janet, relationship quality of classroom discourse in science lessons in elementary students’ understanding of scientific concepts and the nature of science (2006) Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Amman Arab University for Graduate Studies,.(Arabic text)

9) Jadery, Adnan Hussein, descriptive statistics in Educational Sciences,( 2007)Dar process for publication and distribution, printing, Amman – Jordan. (Arabic Text)

10)  Jackson, P. (1968) Life in Classroms.Holt, Rinehart&Winston. P.117

11) Jackson,P.(2004) The Daily Grind In Finder,D.&Thormtons,S .(editors)2^nd ed.

12)  Kenneth, E.D.(1980) Principles of language Learning  teaching. New Jersey  Prentice hall, Inc .U. S. A. P. 122

13)  Lubliner, S. .(2001)The Effect of cognitive strategy instruction on students reading comprehension. D.A.I 62/07

14)  Maher Muflih. The impact of the use of cognitive strategy instruction on the survey form in the collection and the development of critical thinking among students in the ninth grade in the Study of Geography (2003). Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Yarmouk University Irbid. (Arabic Text)

15)   Philip L. Hansford (1984) Using what we know about Teaching .Association of supervision and curriculum Development. North Washington street, Alexandria, virginal

16)  Portelli,J. (1993) Exposing the Hidden Curriculum. Curriculum Studies, 343- 358

17)  Richard, J. and Rodgers, T.S (1986). Approaches and Methods in language       Teaching, A description and analysis .Cambridge Uni.p.67

18)  Rivers, witga, M. (1983). Communication naturally in a school. Language, theory and practice in language teaching. Cambridge, Cambridge University press.P.92

19)  Ryan, K. mining the values in the curriculum .Educational Leadership. November 16-18

20)  Stevick, W. Teaching and leaguing languages Cambridge,(1989)Cambridge university  press.

21)  Wael Kishk, and Wajih rare. Pedagogical discourse analysis and classroom

Interaction patterns in a Palestinian schools (2006) Al-Qattan Centre for Educational

Dewey-Popper-&Holmes the Trinity of a New

     Scientific Approach in educational Methodology

Introduction:

John Dewey (1859-1952) was a leading proponent of the American school of thought known as: pragmatism: Such theory focused on: experimental logic: rather than what was called Dualistic epistemology. Dewey rejected the old concepts of grasping knowledge in favour of a naturalistic approach, which viewed knowledge as arising from the motive adaptation of the human organism to its environment (John Dewey, Encyclopaedia of   philosophy, 1).

Dewey has been influenced by Darwin’s theory of natural selection which concentrated on the complex interrelationships between organism & environments. Such concept led Dewey to the idea of persistent & changeable society & world. Dewey’s pragmatic theory of truth has conceded red as central to the pragmatic school of thought.

The second element of Dewey’s theory of thought is Reflective thinking, he maintained that processes of reflective thinking to the educative process were scientific. (Dewey, 1979 p.145)

In the same line, but from a different intellectual perspective, Karl Popper (1902-1994) had rejected the theory of logic & inductive thinking in favour of deduction and reflective thinking. Popper coined the term critical rationalism accordingly and to describe his philosophy: logic for Popper was part of ancient history and closed societies which developed and nourished by Plato, Marx, Hopes etc.

His view been converted to open society and liberalism, based on human rights (Carr, 2006 p.113).  Such vision of a new wide scope , a new life , a new liberal  society ,science and education  led Popper to the idea of critical dualism and scientific rationalism in his book ‘the open society and its enemies , ( Popper, 1966 p.p. 59-73)  . The new terms indicate his rejection of classical empiricisms of the observation list – inductivity account of science that had grown out of it.  Popper argued strongly against the later holding that scientific theories are abstract in nature, and can be tested only indirectly by reference to their implications.  He also held that scientific theory and human knowledge generally is irreducibly conjectural or hypothetical and is generated by the creative imagination in order to solve problems that have arising in specific historic- cultural settings. (Popper’s  philosophy, Encyclopaedia of philosophy).

Popper’s ideology affected his educational  theory especially in the field of curriculum planning.  Because any discussion of education is political and ideological in other meaning education reflects the broader framework of values in a certain society and reflects the framework of the philosophers and their ideas about the educational system and methodology .Politically, values according to the liberalism for example come closer to the actual political and economic circumstances that prevail within a certain liberal society .Those  values contrast of course with  the values in a non – liberal world such as totalitarianism.(Carr 2006 p.111)

Popper argued; Instead of encouraging the student to devote himself to his studies for the sake of studying, instead of encouraging in him a real love for his subject and for enquiry, he is encouraged to study for the sake of his personal career – he is led to acquire only such knowledge as is serviceable in getting him over the hurdles which he must clear for the sake of his advancement.. I do not know a better argument for an optimistic view of mankind, no better proof of their indestructible love for truth and decency …than the fact that this devastating system of education has not utterly ruined them. (Lawton 1986 p.145).

Brian Holmes (1920 -1993 ) based his methods of problem solving on the reflective thinking of Dewey and the critical dualism of Popper.  The problem approach ‘has  transformed the study of education from the description of traditional  systems to an analysis of problems .

Importance of the study

The three opinions of Dewey , Popper and Holmes have important implications for the educationist who wishes to attempt to make method and technique in his research and study more precise ( Gezi,1971 p.p 15-16).

The scientific approach has turned away from history and the traditional social  sciences .  In Holmes’ words “  there has been a movement away from searching for historical factors or antecedent causes of contemporary events to an interdisciplinary  endeavour to explain and predict behaviour and institutional changes “  (Holmes,1965p.51 ) , and these “trends  reflect not so much a shift of emphasis away from identification and description , but rather an increase of interest in the role they play in explanation which are held to be important in the social sciences” .( Holmes, 1973 p.8).

In other wards . the reflective thinking of Dewey ,the critical dualism of Popper and  the problem approach of Holmes are sophisticated in their theoretical assumptions and clear in their purposes .  Some brief account of these assumptions and purposes is advisable in this paper .

Reflective thinking

Holmes adopts the idea of reflective thinking offered by John Dewey . According to Dewey where reflective thinking occurs , there is always a sense of confusion.  This confusion is reduced by reflective thought which “is an adjustive  mechanism “ (Skilbeck, 1970 p.p 26-27).

Thinking and reflective enquiry are thus for Dewey and Holmes not merely processes of description or explanation , but processes by which an indeterminate situation is transformed into a determinate situation. Such wide scope and understanding of the reflective thinking role in education left its fingerprints on the moderate theories of education , especially concerning reflection in learning , for Mezirow , Brookfield , Habermas & others. In Habermas’s  words  “Reflection in the transformative learning stage enable the learner to take a critical overview and amass further understanding of a professional or social situation or the self or their knowledge , which can lead to emancipation. In other words . it can operate in a Meta – cognitive manner, enabling a view to be taken of the cognitive structure and it’s functioning or of the whole self .Reflection in the stage is in accord with the emancipator level of human interests” (Habermas 1971) .Mezerow (1990) provides examples of ways in which reflection of this type can enable transformative learning such as consciousness raising groups and the use of critical incident   analysis   . (Moon   ,2007 P153).

Thus , in Holmes’s work , the selection of the problem, the choice of starting point for analyses and especially the clarifications of one problem are interrelated and grounded in theory.  Similarly solutions to problems are to be understood in terms of Dewey’s ideas .  Dewy in his reflective thinking approach concentrated on  anticipating  the  consequences of deferrent ways and lines of action.  The hypothesis in reflective thinking represents a possible solution. About the consequences Dewey said “ by putting the consequences of deferent ways and lines of action before the mind , it enable us to know what we are about when we act” (Skilbeck,1970 P.26) .

Thus, within this frame –  work , in the Holmesian problem approach the hypothesis is formulated as the policy designed to solve the problem.  Hence   the term “the problem – solving approach “.Successful explanation occurs when the logical deduction of consequences from the hypothesis as solution are correctly predicted .  Holmes argued about this scientific formula “ the  problem approach implies that understanding of  social educational processes comes form successful prediction rather than as in some epistemologies through the discovery of antecedent causes (Holmes,&Edwards1973

P.53 ) .

Critical  Dualism , induction and refutability

Holmes also draws the concept of ‘critical dualism from  Karl  Popper . In his book ‘The open society and its enemies ‘Popper took a post, relativity view of science.  His methodology asserts and assumes that some regularities operating within a social environment are similar to those found to man’s physical surroundings. Such sequences of social events can be stated in sociological laws. Commenting on the assumption of critical dualism, Holmes has stated “Within any society  there are causal relations whose operation can be understood through the establishment of sociological laws.

These relationships are functional and constitute a deterministic element.  It is the study of the relevant sociological laws that constitutes the science of education or if preferred the scientific study of education.” ( Holmes & Edwards,1973 P.53 ).

Sociological laws refer to those aspects of man’s social environment which are outside his immediate ability to  control , they have the same kind of relationship to the world that natural laws bear to man’s physical environment.

However, according to critical dualism, in any society there can be identified and distinguished two types of law-normative and psychological. The important characteristic of norms and normative laws is that they can be either accepted or changed by man.  They are statements about what ought to be.  “In practice normative laws find most obvious expression in a legal code or a written constitution like those of the USA, France and previous USSR.  They are statements of what   ought to be the case’.  But innumerable codes of behaviour, taboos, values, beliefs, ideas are more or less formalised by rules of behaviour or commands, and are accepted (or challenged) by individual members of a society in which they are found.”  ( Holmes& Edwards1973 P.51 )

The two kinds of law can be used to understand the operation of social institutions or organisations such as schools, insurance companies, industrial concerns, trade unions an so on.

There is another pattern – the environmental – which does not arise directly from the assumption of critical dualism.  This pattern may be constructed from the data relating specifically to the natural resources of a country, e.g. demography.  Holmes then offers through these three types of statement, a general social taxonomy for problem analysis, the base of which is critical dualism:  “The general and comprehensive classification scheme is based upon the distinction. Popper draws between Normative statements about institutional relationships in society.  A third category of data includes information about the natural environment.”  (   Holmes. 1973 P.52  )

In turn, this social taxonomy is based on methodology which rejects induction.  Popper argues that the whole method of induction is the wrong way round, answers can be given only to questions, they do not emerge in some mysterious way from the assembly of data.” ( Johnson &  Wason, 1979 P.258 ).

Thus, according to Popper, whenever we collect data we do so with an explicit or implicit question in mind about data.  Data should be used to refute a falsify theory.  Here Popper was influenced in his views by Einstein.  Popper wrote “my main idea in 1919 was this.  If somebody proposed a scientific theory, he should answer as Einstein did, the question, under what conditions would I admit that my theory is untenable? In other words, what conceivable facts would I accept as refutations, or falsifications of my theory.” (  Johnson  &  Wason, 1979 P.74 ).

Overall, Holmes adopts and adapts the three themes – critical dualism, a rejection of induction as a proper basis for scientific work, and a stress on the testing of hypotheses for the problem approach.  It is equally true of Holmes that generally speaking “  In his hypothetic-deductive view of science there is no place for inductive logic.” ( Johnson &Wason,1979 P.258 ).

Theory of Social Change

Holmes ’theory of social change stresses asynchronous change in society, which is useful in the identification and intellectualisation of problems in comparative studies and in the formulation of hypotheses.  In general Holmes argues that “in the light of many theories of social change, problems arise from asynchronous change in society. “  (  Holmes,1965 P.74) .

Thus, if all the relevant parts of the social order change at the same time and the same place, then no problem arises. From  inconsistencies in the rates of change in a) Institutions, b) Norms, C) General environmental circumstances.

Holmes points out that “Here social change is considered to be the sequence of events initiated by configurations.”   (Holmes 1965 P.74 )

Change in any one aspect of social life is considered to be a sequence of events initiated by innovation in (any one of) the three social configurations while other aspects of these patterns lag behind.  In such situations, social problems may arise because of inconsistencies in the lag between theory and practice, norms and institutions or, institutions and environment.  Concretely Holmes argues thus “One institution may have changed more radically that another, which is functionally related to it, or the aims of education (norms) may change before institutions have been revised to achieve the new aims, or the natural environment may place obstacles in the path of achieving stated goals.”  ( Holmes , 1965 P.P.74-75 ).

To such identified and intellectualised problems, hypotheses are policy solutions and may involve identifying both change and relative non-change. Holmes says “for the purpose of analysis it may be assumed that a change (or innovation) occurs in any societal aspect and the task of intellectualisation involves identifying both the change and relevant (or perhaps relative) not change.(Holmes,1978 P.89 ).

Finally , and according to Holmes’ theory of social change social problems may arise because of lags between elements classified as normative, institutional or environmental.

References

Carr,Wilfred (2006) Philosophy of Education)Routledge,113(UK.USA,&  Canada

Dewey, J.(1979) How we Think) General Publishing  Comp. Ltd                    145(Toronto, Ontario)

Dewey, J.(2007) The Encyclopaedia of Philosophy , an introduction 1. Available at    www.iep.utm.edu/d/dewey.htm.

Gezi , K.I. (1971) Education In Comparative And International Perspective

Holt Reinhart and Winston 15-16.   (New- York)

Habermas , J. (1971)K knowledge and Human Interests, Heineman, London

Holmes, Brian.(1965) Problem in Education.  A comparative Approach

Routledge  and  Kegan Paul 31.   (London)

Holmes, Brian and Edwards, R.et al,(1973) Relevant Methods In Comparative

Education, General Introduction (UNESCO) Inst. For Educ .) Hamburg

51-52.

Johnson, L. and Wason, P.C. (1979). Thinking Readings In Cognitive Science Cambridge University Press 258. (London)

Lawton Denis, (1986) Curriculum Studies And Educational Planning.  Hodder and Stoughton

Educational UK. P.145

Moon A .Jennifer,( 2007) Reflection in Learning & Professional Development .Rutledge

Falmer  New York . P. 153

Popper, K.R. (1966) Open Society And Its Enemies (Vol.1) Princeton

University . Press Books 59-73.Boston (USA)

Popper, K.R (2207) Popper’s Philosophy  , Philosophy Of Science, The Internet:

Encyclopaedia Of Science. Available at www. .eeng .dcu.ie/~tkpw/

Skilbeck , M.(1970) John Dewey Collier Macmillan,26-27  (London)

—————————————————

 Dewey-Popper-&Holmes the Trinity of a New

     Scientific Approach in educational Methodology

By  Doctor Zakariya Ismail  Abudabaat

Al-Zaytoonah University of Jordan

Amman

2007/2008

Conclusion

The Reflective thinking of Dewey, The Critical rationalism of Popper and The Problem solving of Holmes are scientific approaches for teaching and learning, especially in the field of research and facts discovery and investigation. Knowledge for the three thinkers is not absolute, and is not logic.

According to Popper, knowledge is not absolute and it may be falsified. Things and concepts such as values , traditions ,facts ..exc., might be understood in one way in a cretin society but it have a different perspective in another . Natural, social, cultural and political phenomenon could be handled in different ways according to their situation , visibility, circumstances ,understanding and general system.

 In Dewey’s thought there are three kinds of experiences, educative,

non educative and diseducative . For Experience to be educative a process of reflective thinking is required . according to Holmes deductive theory rather than inductive thinking has to be endorsed to establish a new vision in educational methodology 

Hence, the researcher can utilize and use a problem solving approach rather than description and historical in a liberal or in a pragmatic method which have been clarified in Dewey’s. Popper’s, Holmes’ work.

نموذج بيانات أبحاث باللغة الانجليزية

                                       نموذج بيانات أبحاث باللغة الانجليزية  

نموذج بيانات أبحاث باللغة الانجليزية

نموذج ابحاث باللغة الانجليزية

نموذج بيانات أبحاث باللغة الانجليزية

نموذج بيانات أبحاث باللغة الانجليزية

نموذج ابحاث باللغة الانجليزية

نموذج بيانات أبحاث باللغة الانجليزية

نموذج بيانات أبحاث باللغة الانجليزية